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BIOLOGY-EVIE > Topic 1- Cells > Flashcards

Topic 1- Cells Flashcards

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1
Q

what can organisms be?

A

prokaryotes or eukaryotes

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2
Q

what are all living things made of

A

cells

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3
Q

examples of prokaryotes

A

bacteria

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4
Q

examples of eukaryotes

A

animal and plant cells

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5
Q

what’s a eukaryote

A

an organism that is made up of a eukaryotic cell

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6
Q

what’s a prokaryote

A

a prokaryotic cell (a single celled organism)

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7
Q

what are the different parts of cells called

A

sub cellular structures

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8
Q

what’s the nucleus?

A

contains genetic material that controls the activities of a cell

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9
Q

what’s the cytoplasm

A

gel like substance where most of the chemical reactions happen
contains enzymes that control these chemical reactions

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10
Q

what’s the cell membrane

A

holds the cell together and controls what goes in and out

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11
Q

what’s the mitochondria

A

where most of the reactions for aerobic respiration happen

respiration transfers energy that the cell needs to work

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12
Q

what are ribosomes

A

where proteins are made

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13
Q

what do plant cells have

A

all the animal cell parts plus
rigid cell wall
permanent vacuole
chloroplasts

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14
Q

what does an animal cell have

A 
nucleus 
cytoplasm
cell membrane
mitochondria 
ribosomes
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15
Q

what does a cell wall do

A

made of cellulose

supports the cell and strengthens it

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16
Q

what’s the permanent vacuole

A

contains cell sap, a weak solution of sugar and salts

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17
Q

what’s chloroplasts

A

where photosynthesis occurs, which makes food for the plant

contain chlorophyll which absorbs light for photosynthesis

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18
Q

what type of cells are bacteria

A

prokaryotes

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19
Q

what does a bacteria cell contain?

A 
cytoplasm 
cell membrane 
cell wall
strand of DNA that floats in the cytoplasm 
 rings of DNA (plasmids)
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20
Q

what don’t the bacteria cells have

A

chloroplasts or mitochondria or nucleus

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21
Q

what’s differentiation

A

the process by which a cell changes to become specialised for its job

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22
Q

What happens when the cells change

A

develop different sub cellular structures and turn into different types of cells which allows them to carry out specific functions

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23
Q

When does most differentiation occur

A

as an organism develops

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24
Q

What are the cells that differentiate in mature animals mainly used for

A

Repairing and replacing cells such as skin or blood cells

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25
Q

Give five specialised cells and what they’re specialised for

A 
sperm- reproduction 
nerve- rapid signaling
muscle- contraction
root hair- absorbing water and minerals 
phloem and xylem- transporting substances
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26
Q

describe a sperm cells function

A

to get the male dna to the female dna

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27
Q

adaptations of a sperm cell

A

long tail
streamlined head to help swim to egg

lots of mitochondria to provide energy

enzymes in head to digest through the egg cell membrane

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28
Q

function of nerve cell

A

To carry electrical signals from one part of the body to another

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29
Q

adaptations with nerve cell

A

Long to cover more distance

branched connections at their end to connect to other nerve cells and form a network throughout the body

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30
Q

Muscle cell function

A

contract quickly

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31
Q

Adaptations of muscle cell

A

Long so they have space to contract

contain lots of mitochondria to generate the energy needed for contraction

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32
Q

Root hair cell function

A

Cells on the surface of plant roots which grow into long hairs that stick out into the soil

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33
Q

Adaptation of root hair cell

A

large surface area for absorbing water and mineral irons from the soil

thin walls to allow easy movement of water

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34
Q

Function of phloem and xylem cells

A

they form phloem and xylem tubes which transport substances such as food and water around plants

to form the tubes the cells are long and joined end to end

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35
Q

adaptations of phloem and xylem cells

A

Xylem cells are hollow in the centre and phloem cells have very few sub cellular structures so that stuff can flow through them

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36
Q

What do chromosomes contain

A

Genetic information

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37
Q

What does the nucleus contain

A

Your genetic material in the form of cromosones

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38
Q

What are chromosomes

A

coiled up lengths of DNA molecules

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39
Q

What does each chromosome carry

A

A large number of genes

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40
Q

what do genes do

A

different genes control the development of different characteristics for example hair colour

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41
Q

How many chromosomes does the body have

A

Two copies of each chromosome
one from the organisms mother and one from its father so humans have two copies of chromosomes one and two copies of chromosome two etc
23 pairs of chromosomes in total

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42
Q

What’s the stage of the cell cycle where the cell divides called

A

Mitosis

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43
Q

What’s the cell cycle

A

where body cells in multicellular organisms divide to produce new cells as part of a series of stages

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44
Q

What does mitosis do

A

Grow or replace cells that have been damaged

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45
Q

describe the growth and DNA replication part of the cell cycle

A

1) in a cell thats not dividing the DNA is spread out in long strings
2) cell grows and increases the amount of sub cellular structures such as mitochondria and ribosomes
3) it’s duplicate the DNA so there is one copy for each new cell

the DNA is copied and forms X shaped chromosomes

each arm of the cromosome is an exact duplicate of the other

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46
Q

Describe the mitosis part of the cell cycle

A

1) the chromosomes line up at the centre of the cell and cell fibres pull them apart
the two arms of each chromosome go to opposite ends of the cell
2) membranes form around each of the sets of chromosomes

these become the nuclei of the two new cells

the nucleus has divided

3) The cytoplasm and cell membrane divides the new daughter cells are produced and contain exactly the same DNA

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47
Q

what’s binary fission

A

where prokaryotic cells can reproduce using a type of simple cell division called binary fission

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48
Q

what happens in binary fission

A

the cell splits in two

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49
Q

describe the steps of binary fission

A

1) circular DNa and plasmids replicate
2) cell gets bigger and circular DnA strands move to the opposite ‘poles’ (ends of cell)
3) cytoplasm begins to divide and new cell walls begin to form
4) cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells are produced
5) each daughter cell has one copy of the circular DNA bit can have a variable number of copies of the plasmids

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50
Q

conditions for bacteria to divide?

A

warm

lots of nutrients

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51
Q

if conditions are unfavourable what happens to the cells

A

they stop dividing and eventually begin to die

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52
Q

what’s the mean division time

A

the average amount of time it takes for one bacterial cell to divide into two

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53
Q

if you know the mean division time of a cell what can you work out?

A

how many times it has divided in a certain amount of time and so the number of cells it has produced in that time

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54
Q

how do you find the mean number of divisions

A

divide total time that bacteria are producing cells by mean division time

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55
Q

how do you find the number of cells

A

put 2 to the power of how many divisions

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56
Q

where is bacteria grown

A

in a culture medium

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57
Q

what does a culture medium contain

A

carbohydrates
minerals
proteins
vitamins

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58
Q

what can the culture medium be?

A

nutrient broth solution or solid agar jelly

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59
Q

when bacteria is grown on agar plates what will it form?

A

visible colonies on the surface of the jelly or it will spread out to give an even covering of bacteria

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60
Q

how do you make an agar plate

A

hot agar jelly is poured into shallow round plastic dishes called PETRI DISHES

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61
Q

what’s an inoculating loop

A

inoculating loops transfer microorganisms to the culture medium

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62
Q

what else can be used other than an inoculating loop

A

sterile dropping pippete and spreader

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63
Q

what happens after inoculating loops transfer microorganisms

A

the microorganisms multiply

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64
Q

why are microorganisms not kept higher than 25 degrees

A

because harmful pathogens are more likely to grow above this temp

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65
Q

when are cultures incubated at high temps

A

industrial conditions

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66
Q

how can you test the action of antibiotics or antiseptics in cultures of bacteria

A

1) place paper discs soaked in different concentrations/types of antibiotics on an agar plate that has an even covering of bacteria
LEAVE SPACE BETWEEN DISCS

2) antibiotic diffuses into jelly antibiotic-resistant bacteria will continue to grow around discs, but NON RESISTANT STRAINS WILL DIE

a clear area will be left where bacteria has died- inhibition zone

3) use a control, non antibiotic soaked disc (soaked in sterile water instead)
4) leave plate for 48 hours at 25 degrees
5) larger inhibition zone= more effective antibiotic

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67
Q

whats a clear area will be left where bacteria has died called?

A

inhibition zone

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68
Q

what can contamination do

A

result i. growth of pathogens

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69
Q

to avoid uncontaminated cultures, you MUST?…

A

use sterilised petri dishes, by heating at high temps

pass inoculating loop through flame to kill unwanted microorganisms

lid of dish lightly taped on to stop microorganisms from air getting in

dish stored upside down to stop drops of condensation falling onto agar surface

70
Q

equation for area of inhibition zone

A

area= pi r squared

71
Q

what can the area equation be used for

A

area of colony

size of inhibition zone

72
Q

what’s differentiation

A

the process by which a cell changes to become specialised for its job

73
Q

what type of cells are stem cells

A

undifferentiated

74
Q

what can stem cells do

A

divide to produce lots more undifferentiated cells

they can differentiate into different types of cells depending on what instructions they’re given

75
Q

where are stem cells found

A

early human embryos

76
Q

what do stem cells have the potential to do

A

turn into any kind of cell at all

77
Q

where are adult stem cells found

A

bone marrow

78
Q

what can bone marrow stem cells do

A

turn into only certain types of cells such as blood cells

79
Q

what can all stem cells be used for

A

they can be grown in the lab to produce clones

made to differentiate into specialised cells to use in medicine or research

80
Q

what can stem cells do to cure disease

A

bone marrow- replace faulty blood cells

embryonic- insulin producing cells, nerve cells

81
Q

what’s therapeutic cloning

A

where an embryo could be made to have the same genetic information as the patient
this means that some cells produced from it would also contain the same genes and so wouldn’t be rejected by patient’s body if used to replace faulty cells

82
Q

stem cell risks

A

becoming contaminated with virus which could be passed on to patient

83
Q

arguments against and for stem cells

A

-Potential human life

+curing existing patients who are suffering is more important than the rights of embryos

+embryos used are unwonted ones which would probably just be destroyed

-scientist should find other sources of stem cells

84
Q

In some countries stem cell research is…

A

BANNED

85
Q

Where arestem cells found in plants

A

meristems

86
Q

what happens to cells in the meristem tissues

A

They can differentiate into any type of plant cell

87
Q

Plant stem cells can be used to produce what

A

clones of plants (rare species and disease resistant)

88
Q

what’s diffusion

A

the spreading out of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

89
Q

where does diffusion happen

A

in solutions and gases because the particles in these are free to move about randomly

90
Q

whats the conc gradient

A

the difference in concentration

91
Q

the bigger the conc gradient…

A

the faster the diffusion rate

92
Q

the higher the temp…

A

the faster the diffusuion rate because particles will have more energy

93
Q

what sort of substances move in and out of cells by diffusuion

A

dissolved

94
Q

what does the cell membrane do in diffusion

A

let stuff in and out

95
Q

what molecules can diffuse through cell membranes

A

small molecules such as oxygen, glucose, amino acids and water

96
Q

what molecules can’t fit through the membrane

A

starch and proteins

97
Q

if there are a lot more particles on one side of the membrane…

A

theres a net (overall) movement from that side

98
Q

the larger the surface area of the membrane…

A

the faster the diffusion rate because more particles can pass through at once

99
Q

what is osmosis

A

the movement of water particles across a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to an region of lower water concentration

100
Q

whats a partially permeable membrane

A

a membrane with very small holes in it, so only water can pass through, beacause the molecules are very small

101
Q

what way do water molecules travel through the membrane

A

randomly, both ways

102
Q

whats the net flow of osmosis

A

where because there are more water molecules on one side than on the other, theres a steady flow of water into the region with fewer water molecules (the stronger sugar solution). this means the water gets more dilute

103
Q

what is the water trying to do in osmosis

A

dilute the strong sugar solution and even up the conc on each side of the membrane

104
Q

describe the potato practical

A

1) cut up potato evenly
2) put each one in beakers with different sugar solutions
3) one should be pure water, then 1 mol/dm3, 0.2 mol/dm3, 0.4mol/dm3 etc
4) measure mass of each potato cylinder
5) leave potato in sugar solutions for 24hours or so
6) dry the cylinders and measure mass agai

105
Q

if the cylinders of potato have increased mass…

A

they have drawn in water by osmosis

106
Q

if the cylinders of potato have increased mass…

A

they have drawn out water by osmosis

107
Q

dependent variable of potato experiment

A

chip mass

108
Q

independent variable of potato experiment

A

conc of sugar solution

109
Q

control variables of potato experiment

A

volume of solution, temp, time, type of sugar etc

110
Q

potential errors in potato experiment

A

excess water gives higher mass- not fully dried cylinders of potato
conc of sugar changes-water evaporates from beakers

111
Q

whats active transport

A

where substances are absorbed against a conc gradient, from lower to higher conc, using energy

112
Q

what do root hair cells take in

A

minerals and water

113
Q

what are the branches of roots covered in

A

microscopic hairs

114
Q

what do microscopic hairs do to the plant

A

give them a large surface area for absorbing water and mineral ions from the soil

115
Q

what do plants need minerals for

A

healthy growth

116
Q

the conc of minerals is higher in the root hair cells than…

A

the soil around them , so diffusion cant be used to take up minerals from the soil

117
Q

what does active transport allow plants to do

A

absorb minerals from a very dilute solution, against the conc gradient

118
Q

what does active transport need to work

A

energy

119
Q

where else does active transport happen

A

in the gut when there is a lower conc of nutrients in the gut but a higher conc of nutrients in the blood

120
Q

when else does active transport happen in humans

A

when glucose can be taken into the bloodstream when its conc in the blood is already higher than in the gut. It can then be transported to cells, where it is used for respiration

121
Q

organisms exchange substances with their…

A

environment

122
Q

what do cells use to take in substances that they need and to get rid of waste products

A

diffusion

123
Q

the larger an organism is, the smaller the…

A

SA is compared to its volume

124
Q

SA equation

A

length x width

125
Q

volume equation

A

length x width x height

126
Q

to simplify the ratio, what do you do

A

divide both sides of the ratio by the volume

127
Q

whats the sa: v ratio like in single celled organisms

A

large sa compared to their volumbe,

so gases and dissolved substances can diffuse directly into or out of the cell across the cell membrane

enough substances can be exchanged across the membrane to supply the volume of the cell

128
Q

whats the sa: v ratio like in multicellular organisms

A

small sa compared to volume, so not enough substances can diffuse from their outside surface to supply their entire volume. This means they need an exchange surface to allow enough of the necessary substances to pass through

129
Q

how are exchange surfaces adapted to maximise effectiveness

A

thin membrane- substances only have short distance to diffuse
large SA- lots of substances can diffuse at once
in animals, have lots of blood vessels- to get stuff in and out of body quickly
gas exchange surfaces in animals (eg.alveoli) are ventilated- are moves in and out

130
Q

what is the job of the lungs

A

to transfer oxygen to the blood and remove waste carbon dioxide from it

131
Q

what are the alveoli specialised for

A

to maximise the diffusion of O2 and CO2

132
Q

adaptations of alveoli

A

enormous SA
moist lining- dissolving gases
Thin walls
good blood supply

133
Q

where are the villi?

A

the inside of the small intestine

134
Q

what do villi do?

A

they increase the SA in a big way so that digested food is absorbed much more quickly into the blood

135
Q

what do villi have

A

a single layer of surface cells

a very good blood supply to assist quick absorption

136
Q

The top and bottom of the leaf are covered with what

A

a layer of very thin cells called epidermal cells and they form epidermal tissue

137
Q

Epidermis adaptations

A
  • At the top of the leaf are the upper epidermis and at the bottom are the lower epidermis
  • The epidermis protects the surface of the leaf
  • The upper epidermis is transparent and allows light to pass through to the photosynthetic cells below
138
Q

Waxy cuticle

A
  • The upper epidermis is covered with a thin layer of oily material called the waxy cuticle
  • The waxy cuticle reduces the evaporation of water form the leaf and helps it from drying out
139
Q

Stomata

A
  • Allow carbon dioxide to enter the leaf and oxygen to leave
  • Help control the amount of water vapour that can pass out of the leaf
  • On either side, there are guard cells
140
Q

Palisade mesophyll has what?

A

palisade cells

141
Q

what do palisade cells have lots of

A

chloroplasts

142
Q

chlorophyll does what

A

which absorbs the light energy needed for photosynthesis

143
Q

The spongy mesophyll is full of what

A

air spaces

144
Q

what do air spaces in spongy mesophyll allow

A

carbon dioxide to diffuse from the stomata through the spongy mesophyll to the palisade cells

145
Q

what diffuses from the palisade cells through the spongy mesophyll to the stomata

A

oxygen and water vapour

146
Q

what does xylem tissue do

A

transports water from the roots to the stem and leaves

147
Q

what else does the xylem do

A

xylem also transports dissolved minerals ions. These include magnesium which is used to make chlorophyll

148
Q

what does the phloem do

A

• Transports dissolved sugars produced by photosynthesis from the leaves to the rest of the plant

149
Q

what are sugars transported by phloem used for?

A

sugars can be used immediately, for example glucose and respiration. Or they can be stored, for example starch.

150
Q

translocation definition?

A

• The movement of sugars and other molecules through phloem tissue

151
Q

wheres meristem tissue found

A

growing tips eg shoots and roots

152
Q

what does meristem tissue contain

A

• Contains stem cells, which can differentiate into different types of plant tissue

153
Q

whats the underneath of the leaf

A

an exchange surface

154
Q

what diffuses into the leaf then into the cells for photosynthesis?

A

CO2

155
Q

what does CO2 use to diffuse in

A

stomata

156
Q

wheres water vapour lost from in the leaf

A

stomata

157
Q

what do guard cells do

A

close the stomata if the plant is losing too much water

158
Q

what does the flattened shape of the leaf do

A

it means the area of the exchange ssuface is increased so its more effective

159
Q

whats another exchange surface in the leaves formed by

A

walls of the leaf cells

160
Q

what do the walls of the cells inside the leaf do

A

the air spaces inside the leaf increase the area of the surface so more chance for CO2 to get into the cells

161
Q

where does water evaporate from the leaf

A

the cells

162
Q

by what process does water vapour leave the leaf

A

diffusion, theres more inside the leaf than there is outside the leaf

163
Q

whats the gas exchange surface in a fish

A

gills

164
Q

how does water enter and exit the fish

A

enters through mouth

exits through gills

165
Q

what happens to oxygen and CO2 in the fish

A

oxygen diffuses from water -> blood in gills

CO2 diffuses from the blood -> water

166
Q

what are gills made of

A

gill filaments, which make a big surface area for exchange of gases

167
Q

what are gill filaments covered in

A

lots of tiny structures called lamellae, increasing the SA

168
Q

the lamelllae have lots of what?

A

lots of blood capilaries to speed up diffusion

169
Q

what do the fish cells have to minimise the distance gas has to difuse?

A

thin surface layer

170
Q

how is a large conc gradient maintained between water and blood in fish

A

blood flows through lamellae in one direction and water flows over in the opposite direction

171
Q

describe the conc of oxygen in water (fish)

A

its always higher than the blood, so as much oxygen as possible diffuses from the water in the blood

172
Q

formula for magnification

A

magnification = image size divided by real size

BIOLOGY-EVIE (8 decks)

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