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ESA1 > ToB > Flashcards

ToB Flashcards

0
Q

Define histology

A

Study of the structure of tissues by means of special staining techniques combined with light and electron microscopy

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1
Q

Define tissue

A

Collection of cells specialised to perform a particular function
Aggregations of tissues constitute organs

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2
Q

Value of histology

A

Biopsy and histology is the final proof of most diseases
For diagnoses purposes
E.g. Lung and breast cancer

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3
Q

Angstrom in meters

A

10^-10 m

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4
Q

Size of most cells

A

10-20micrometers

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5
Q

Define biopsy

A

Removal of a small piece of tissue from an organ or part of the body for microscopic examination

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6
Q

Define smear test

A

Collect cells by spontaneous/mechanical exfoliation

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7
Q

What is a smear test used for?

A

Cervix and buccal cavity

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8
Q

Define curettage

A

Remove tissue by scooping and scraping

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9
Q

Define needle

A

Put needle into tissue to gather cells

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10
Q

Define direct incision

A

Cut directly into tissue of interest and remove tissue

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11
Q

Define endoscopic

A

Removal of tissue via instruments through an endoscope

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12
Q

Uses of curettage

A

Endometrial lining of uterus

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13
Q

Uses of needle biopsy

A 
Brain 
Breast
Liver
Kidney
Muscle
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14
Q

Uses of direct incision

A

Skin
Mouth
Larynx

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15
Q

Uses of endoscopy

A

Lung
Bladder
Intestine

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16
Q

Uses of trans vascular biopsy

A

Heart

Liver

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17
Q

Fresh biopsy examples

A

Needle biopsy

Wet and bloody

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18
Q

Define fixed biopsy

A

Macromolecules cross-linked
Cellular structure preserved
No autokysis or putrefaction

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19
Q

Commonly used fixatives

A

Glutaraldehyde

Formaldehyde

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20
Q

What causes shrinkage artefacts

A

Tissue is dehydrated and rehydrated in

Slide preparation process

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21
Q

What is a shrinkage artefact?

A

Abnormalities in final slide

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22
Q

What does haematoxylin stain?

A

Acidic components of cells
Nucleolus (RNA)
Chromatin (DNA)
Purple/Blue

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23
Q

What does eosin stain?

A

Basic components of cells
Most cytoplasmic proteins
Extracellular fibres
Pink

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24
Q

What does Periodic Acid-Schiff stain?

A

Carbohydrates
Glycoproteins
Magenta

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25
Q

What is phase contrast?

A

Uses interference effects of two combining light waves

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26
Q

Advantages of phase contrast

A

Enhancing the image of unstained cells

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27
Q

Define dark field

A

Exclude unscattered beam (light/electron) from the image

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28
Q

Advantages of dark field

A

Live an unstained sample

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29
Q

Define fluorescence

A

Target molecule of interest with fluorescent Ab

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30
Q

Define confocal

A

Tissue labelled with one or more fluorescent probes

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31
Q

Advantaged of fluorescence

A

Uses multiple fluorescent stains on one specimen

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32
Q

Advantages of confocal

A

Eliminates ‘out of focus flare’
3D from a series of 2D images
Imaging of living specimens

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33
Q

Define epithelia

A

Sheets of contiguous cells of varied embryonic origin that cover external surface of the body and line internal surfaces

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34
Q

Embryonic origin of epidermis and corneal epithelium

A

Ectoderm

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35
Q 
Embryonic origin of 
epithelium of urogenital tract
Blood and lymphatic vessel lining
Pericardial and pleural sac lining
Peritoneal lining
A

Mesoderm

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36
Q

Embryonic origin of

Epithelia of resp and GI tract, of liver and many glands

A

Endoderm

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37
Q

Define simple

A

One cell layer thick

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38
Q

Define endothelium

A

Lining of blood vessels

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39
Q

Define mesothelium

A

Lining of body cavities

Pericardium, pleura, peritoneum

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40
Q

Epithelia of blood vessels

A

Simple squamous

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41
Q

Epithelia of mesothelium

A

Simple squamous

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42
Q

Basement membrane position

A

Thin, flexible, acellular layer which lies between epithelial cells and subtending connective tissue

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43
Q

Basement membrane structure

A

Basal lamina laid down by epithelial cells, lies closest to them

Thickness can inc by variably thick layer of reticular fibrils (type3collagen) elaborated by the subtending connective tissue

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44
Q

Basement membrane function

A

Strong flexible layer to which epithelial cells adhere
Cellular and molecular filter
Degree of penetration of basement membrane by malignant cells highly relevant to prognosis

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45
Q

Where are micro villi occludin?

A

Simple columnar epithelia

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46
Q

What does microvilli occludin do?

A

Binds adjacent plasma membranes tightly together in apical portions of some epithelia
Form zona occludens
Membrane proteins cannot pass

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47
Q

Renewal rate for epithelia

Describe

A

Constant rate for each epithelia

Differs depending on location and fUnction

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48
Q

When is turnover rate of epithelia not constant?

A

Injury leads to acceleration

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49
Q

Turnover rate of skin

A

28 days

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50
Q

Turnover rate of small intestine epithelia

A

4-6 days

51
Q

Are all epithelia renewed?

A

No

But proliferation can be triggered to replace damaged/lost cells

52
Q

Define microvilli

A

Apical extensions that greatly increase the surface area for selective absorption of intestinal contents

53
Q

Define stereocilia

A

Very long microvilli
Extend from the surface of the ductus deferens and the epididymis
May have absorptive function

54
Q

Define cilia

A

Extensions form cells that beat in coordinated waves

9+2 configuration

55
Q

Where are cilia found ?

A

In lining of trachea - sweep mucus n dirt out of lungs

In Fallopian tubes - move ovum from ovary to uterus

56
Q

Classifying glands

A

Destination of secretion
Structure of gland
Nature of secretion
Method of discharge

57
Q

Define exocrine

A

Gland with ducts

58
Q

Define endocrine

A

Ductless gland that secretes directly into the blood

59
Q

Simple multicellular glands

A

Ducts don’t branch

60
Q

Complex/compound multicellular gland

A

Ducts branch

61
Q

Define mucous gland

A

Secretions containing mucus rich mucins
highly glycosylated polypeptide
Such cells stain poorly in H&E sections

62
Q

Define serous glands

A

Secretions often enzymes are watery and free of mucus

Eosinophilic pink H and E section

63
Q

Methods of secretion

A

Merocrine
Apocrine
Holocrine

64
Q

Describe Merocrine secretion

A

Membrane bound vesicle approaches cell-surface
Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane
Contents of vesicle are in continuity with the extracellular space
Plasma membrane is very slightly larger
Membrane retrieved stabilising cell-surface area

65
Q

Examples of merocrine secretion locations

A

Salivary glands

Pancreas

66
Q

Examples of apocrine secretion locations

A

Mammary glands

myoepithelial cells assist secretion

67
Q

Describe Apocrine secretion

A

Non-membrane-bound structures e.g. Lipid approaches cell-surface
Make contact and pushes up apical membrane
Thin layer of apical cytoplasm drapes around droplet
Menbrane surrounding droplet pinches off from cell
Plasma membrane is very slightly smaller
Membrane added to regain original surface area

68
Q

Location of Holocene secretion

A

Sebaceous gland

69
Q

Describe Holocene secretion

A

Disintegration of the entire cell
Release of contents
Discharge of whole cell

70
Q

Define endocytosis

A

Process of engulfing material initially outside the cell

Opposite to exocytosis (merocrine secretion)

71
Q

What is coupled in trans epithelial transport?

A

Endocytosis and exocytosis

72
Q

When is trans epithelial transport used?

A

When molecules are too large to penetrate membranes

73
Q

Describe trans epithelial transport

A

Material endocytosis at one surface of the cell
Transport vesicle shuttles it across the cytoplasm
Material/vesicle then exocytosis at the opposite surface

74
Q

Golgi apparatus structure

A

Stack of disc-shaped cisternae
One side of the disc flattened, other side concave
Discs have swelling at their edges (vesicles that bud off)
Distal swellings pinch off as migratory Golgi vacuoles

75
Q

Golgi apparatus function

A

Sorting into different compartments
Packaging through condensation of contents
Adding sugars to proteins and lipids (glycosylation)
Transport

76
Q

Golgi apparatus product destination

A

Majority extruded in secretory vesicles
Some retained for use in cells (e.g. Lysosomes)
Some enter the plasma membrane (Glycocalyx)

77
Q

Golgi apparatus - glycosylation and specificity

A

Branching sugars offer complex shapes for specific interaction in the Glycocalyx
Enzymatic destruction of this layer alters specificity based properties of cells

78
Q

Specificity based properties of cells determined by Glycocalyx

A

Adhesion to substrates and neighbouring cells
Communication with neighbouring cells
Contact inhibition of movement and division
Mobility of cells

79
Q

What makes cells more specific?

A

Sugars

80
Q

Simple mechanisms that control secretion

A

Nervous control
Endocrine control
Neuro-endocrine control
Negative feedback chemical mechanism

81
Q

Example of nervous control of secretion

A

Sympathetic nervous stimulation of adrenal medullary cells

Leads to release of adrenaline

82
Q

Example of endocrine control of secretion

A

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone ACTH stimulate the cortex of the adrenal gland to secrete hormones
E.g. Cortisol

83
Q

Example of neuro-endocrine control of secretion

A

Nervous cells of the hypothalamus control ACTH secretion from the anterior pituitary gland

84
Q

Example of negative feedback chemical mechanism of secretion

A

Inhibitory effect of high thyroxine (T3&T4) levels on TSH synthesis by the anterior pituitary gland

85
Q

Recognising exocrine gland

A

Unicellular glands (goblet cells) in jejunum and colon
Parotid glands
Submandibular glands

86
Q

Recognise endocrine glands

A

Pancreas
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Adrenal (suprarenal) glands

87
Q

Secretion by parotid glands

A

Exocrine

88
Q

Secretion by submandibular glands

A

Exocrine

89
Q

Secretion by pancreas

A

Endocrine

90
Q

Secretion by thyroid glands

A

Endocrine

91
Q

Secretion by parathyroid glands

A

Endocrine

92
Q

Secretion by adrenal (suprarenal) glands

A

Endocrine

93
Q

What do mucous membranes line?

A

Internal tubes that open to the exterior
Alimentary tract
Respiratory tract
Urinary tract

94
Q

Mucous membranes consist of:

A

Epithelium (type depending on site) lining the lumen of a tube
Adjacent layer of connective tissue often referred to as the lamina propria
In the alimentary tract, 3rd layer consisting of smooth muscle= muscular is mucosae

95
Q

Muscularis mucosae

A

What is the smooth muscle in alimentary tract also known as?

96
Q

What is the adjacent layer if connective tissue in mucous membrane also known as?

A

Lamina propria

97
Q

What are serous membranes?

A

Thin, two part membrane that line certain closed body cavities (spaces which do not open to the exterior)

98
Q

What do serous membranes envelop?

A

The viscera

99
Q

Examples of serous membranes

A

Peritoneum
Pleural sacs
Pericardial sac

100
Q

What does the pericardial sac envelop?

A

The heart

101
Q

What does the peritoneum envelop?

A

Many abdominal organs

102
Q

What do the pleural sacs envelop?

A

The lungs

103
Q

What do the serous membranes secrete?

A

Lubricating fluid

Promotes relatively friction free movement of structures they surround

104
Q

Serous membrane consists of:

A

Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium)- secretes watery lubricating fluid
Thin layer of connective tissue - attaches to epithelium to adjacent tissues (also carries blood vessels and nerves)

105
Q

Define the term limit of resolution

A

Minimum distance that two objects can be distinguished at

106
Q

Limit of resolution is proportional to

A

Wavelength

107
Q

Theoretical limit of resolution for light microscope

A

0.2 micrometers

108
Q

Theoretical limit of resolution for an electron microscope

A

0.002nm

109
Q

Structure of bilipid membrane

A 
Phospholipid bilayer (membrane) forms a relatively impermeable barrier to most water-soluble molecules
Phospholipid molecules which make up cell membrane are amphipathic
110
Q

Function of bilipid membrane

A

Protein molecules dissolved in the lipid bilayer mediate most of the other functions of the membrane

111
Q

Structure of Glycocalyx

A

Cell ‘coat’ made up of oligosaccharide and polysaccharide side chain on the outside of the plasma membrane

112
Q

Function of Glycocalyx

A

Side chains are a way of giving the cell specificity

113
Q

Functions of plasma membrane

A 
Selective permeability
Transport of materials along the cell surface
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
Intercellular recognition
Signal transduction
Intercellular adhesion
114
Q

Functions of nucleus

A

Stores cell’s DNA
Coordinates cell’s activities
metabolism, growth, protein synthesis, mitosis

115
Q

Structure of nuclear envelope

A

Double layered membrane that separates the contents of the nucleus from the cellular cytoplasm
Has lots of nuclear pores

116
Q

Function of nuclear envelope

A

Nuclear pores allow specific types and sizes of molecules to pass back and forth between the nuclear and cytoplasm
Attached to a network of tubules called the endoplasmic reticulum

117
Q

Describe nucleolus

A

Inside nucleus

Synthesises protein-producing macromolecular structures called ribosomes

118
Q

Describe ribosome

A

Site of translation

Used for protein synthesis

119
Q

Structure of rough endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes

A

Membrane of RER continuous with outer layer of nuclear envelope
Ribosome only binds when it begins to synthesise a protein destined for the secretory pathway

120
Q

Functions of RER

A

Lysosomal enzymes with mannose-6-phosphate marker added in cis-Golgi network
Secreted proteins constitutively or regulated
Initial glycosylation N-linked (O- linked in Golgi)

121
Q

Where is smooth ER found

A

Liver and mammary gland (lipid synthesis)

Ovaries, testis, adrenal glands (steroidogenesis)

122
Q

Golgi apparatus structure

A

Saucer shaped stacks of cisternae

123
Q

Vesicle transport in Golgi

A

Vesicles bud off from the RER and fuse with the convex cis face of the Golgi body
Golgi bodies have polarity such that proteins migrate from the convex to the concave trans face of the stack

124
Q

Functions of the Golgi apparatus

A

Modify, sort, concentrate and package proteins synthesised on the RER

125
Q

Vesicles leaving Golgi

A

Destined for lysosomes assembly or

Secretion - secretory vesicles are condensed to granules then contents released at cell surface by exocytosis

ESA1 (6 decks)

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