Tissue Level Of Organization Flashcards

1
Q

What is a tissue?

A

Collections of cells and cell products that perform specific, limited functions.

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2
Q

What is histology?

A

Study of tissues

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3
Q

What is epithelium tissue?

A
  • Covers exposed surfaces
  • Lines internal passageways
  • Forms glands
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4
Q

What is connective tissue?

A
  • Supports other tissues
  • Fills internal spaces
  • No contract with the environment
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5
Q

What is muscle tissue?

A
  • Specialized for contraction
  • Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles
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6
Q

What is neural tissue?

A
  • Carried electrical signals from one part of the body to another
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7
Q

What are the five characteristics of epithelial tissue?

A
  1. Cellularity (Cell junctions)
  2. Polarity (Apical and basal surfaces)
  3. Attachment (Basement membrane)
  4. Avascularity (No blood vessels)
  5. Regeneration
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8
Q

What are the four functions of epithelial tissue?

A
  1. Physical protection
  2. Control permeability
  3. Sensation (Neuroepithelium)
  4. Secretions (Glandular epithelium)
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9
Q

How do you increase surface area?

A
  • Microvilli increase absorption or secretion
  • Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluids
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10
Q

What are the three ways the integrity of epithelial tissues are maintained?

A
  • Intercellular connections
  • Attachment to basement membrane
  • Maintain and repair
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11
Q

How does intercellular connections work?

A
  • Bonds between adjacent cells
  • Support and communication
  • Includes:
    • Tight junctions
    • Gap junctions
    • Desmosomes:
      • Belt
      • Button (spot)
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12
Q

What is the basement membrane (basal lamina)?

A
  1. It has two layers:
    - Lamina lucida
    • Thin layer
    • Produced by epithelium
      - Lamina densa
    • Thick fibers
    • Produced by connective tissue
  2. Attachment of epithelial cells to basal lamina:
    - Hemidesmosomes
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13
Q

How are epithelial cells maintained and repaired?

A

They are replaced by division of germinative (stem) cells near the basal lamina.

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14
Q

What are the two classes of epithelial tissues?

A
  1. Epithelia: (AKA surface epithelium)
    - Layers of cells covering external or lining internal surfaces.
  2. Glands:
    - Structures that produce secretions
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15
Q

What are the two classes of surface epithelium?

A
  1. Cell shape
    - Squamous epithelia: flat shaped
    - Cuboidal epithelia: square shaped
    - Columnar epithelia: tall shaped
  2. Layers
    - Simple epithelium: single layer of cells
    - Stratified epithelium: several layers of cells
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16
Q

What are the two types of squamous epithelium?

A
  1. Simple squamous epithelium
    - Most delicate epithelium: diffusion and absorption
    - Mesothelium- endothelium- lung alveoli
  2. Stratified squamous epithelium
    - Toughest type of epithelium: physical protection
    - Skin- lining of mouth, esophagus, rectum, vagina…
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17
Q

What are the three types of cuboidal epithelium?

A
  1. Simple cuboidal epithelium
    - Absorption and secretion
    - Renal tubules- thyroid gland
  2. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
    - Protection, absorption, and secretion
    - Sweat and mammary gland ducts
  3. Transitional epithelium
    - Stretch and recoil
    - Urinary bladder- uterus
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18
Q

What are the three types of columnar epithelium?

A
  1. Simple columnar epithelium
    - Absorption and secretion
    - Stomach- intestine- uterine tubes
  2. Stratified columnar epithelium
    - Protection
    - Salivary gland ducts
  3. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
    - Protection, secretion, and cilia movement
    - Trachea- bronchi
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19
Q

What are the two types of glandular epithelium?

A
  1. Endocrine glands
    - No ducts (ductless glands)
    - Release hormones into interstitial fluid —> blood
    - e.g thyroid gland- adrenal gland…
  2. Exocrine glands
    - Have ducts
    - Produce secretions —> ducts —> epithelial surfaces
    - e.g sweat glands
    - Modes of secretion
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20
Q

What are the modes secretion? (Crine)

A

Modes of secretion:
- Merocrine secretion
- Released by vesicles (exocytosis)
- e.g sweat glands- salivary glands
- Apocrine secretion
- Released by shedding cytoplasm
- e.g mammary gland
- Holocrine secretion
- Released by cells bursting
- Gland cells are replaced by stem cells
- e.g sebaceous gland

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21
Q

What are the three types of exocrine glands?

A

Serous glands:
watery secretions
e.g., parotid salivary gland

Mucous glands:
secrete mucins
e.g., sublingual salivary gland

Mixed exocrine glands:
both serous and mucous
e.g., submandibular salivary gland

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22
Q

What is the structure of exocrine glands?

A

Unicellular
Multicellular

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23
Q

What is the unicellular exocrine gland?

A

Goblet cells:
the only unicellular exocrine gland
scattered among epithelia:
e.g., in intestinal lining
secrete mucin

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24
Q

What are multicellular exocrine glands?

A

Structure of the duct:
simple (undivided)
compound (divided)

Shape of secretory portion:
tubular (tube shaped)
alveolar/acinar (blind pocket/chamber)
tubuloalveolar/tubuloacinar

Relationship between ducts and glands:
branched (several secretory areas sharing 1 duct)

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25
Q

What is an example of a coiled tubular gland?

A

Merocrine sweat glands

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26
Q

What is an example of simple branched alveolar glands?

A

Sebaceous (oil) glands

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27
Q

What is an example of a compound tubular?

A

Testes (somniferous tubules)

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28
Q

What is an example of compound alveolar (acinar)?

A

Mammary glands

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29
Q

What is an example of compound tubuloalveolar?

A

Salivary glands
Pancreas

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30
Q

What are the four functions of connective tissues?

A
  1. Connect epithelium to the rest of the body
  2. Provide structure
  3. Store energy
  4. Transport materials
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31
Q

What are the components (2) of connective tissues?

A

Specialized cells

Extracellular matrix (most of the tissue volume:
(Fibres and ground substance)
- solid: protein fibers
- fluid: ground substance

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32
Q

What are the three classifications of connective tissues?

A

Connective tissue proper:
connect and protect (fat & tendons)

Fluid connective tissues:
transport (blood & lymph)

Supportive connective tissues:
structural strength (cartilage & bone)

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33
Q

What is in the connective tissue proper’s matrix?

A

Fibers and ground stubstance

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34
Q

What are the permanent residents in connective tissue proper?

A
  1. Fibroblasts (most abundant most important)
  2. Adipocytes
  3. Mesnchymal cells
  4. Melanocytes
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35
Q

What are the migratory substances in connective tissue proper?

A
  1. Lymphocytes
  2. Macrophages
  3. Microphages
  4. Mast cells
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36
Q

What are fibroblasts? (Proper CT)

A

Most abundant cell type.
Found in all connective tissue proper.
Secrets proteins (tubers) and hyaluronan (cellular cement).
(permanent residents)

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37
Q

What are adipocytes? (Proper CT)

A

Fat cells.
Each cell stores a single, large fat droplet.
Like normal cells, but have a large fat drop that fish away the nucleus.
(permanent residents)

38
Q

What are mesenchymal cells? (Proper CT)

A

Stem cells (mother cells).
Divide to compensate for injury, they then differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, ect…
(permanent residents)

39
Q

What is melanocytes? (Proper CT)

A

Synthesize and store the brown pigment.
Makes skin, hair, eye, and nipple colours.
(permanent residents)

40
Q

What is lymphocytes? (Proper CT)

A

Specialized immune cells in blood and lymphatic system.
2 main types T & B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes may develop into plasma cells which antibodies.
(migratory)

41
Q

What are macrophages? (Proper CT)

A

Large, amoeba-like cells.
Part of immune system; engulf pathogens and damage cells.
2 conditions: free macrophages migrate (monocytes in blood) and fixed macrophages stay in tissue (kupffer cells in the liver).
Basically eats things not required by the cell.
(migratory)

42
Q

What are microphages? (Proper CT)

A

Small, phagocytic blood cells.
Respond to signals from macrophages and mast cells.
e.g, neutrophils and eosinophils, more acidic.
(migratory)

43
Q

What are mast cells? (Proper CT)

A

Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection.
Granules release histamine and heparin.
Basophils are mast cells carried blood, not tissue.
(migratory)

44
Q

What are the types of fibers of connective tissue proper?

A

Collagen fibers.
Reticular fibers.
Elastic fibers.
These are all formed by fibroblasts.

45
Q

What are collagen fibers? (Proper CT)

A

Most common fibres in CTP.
Long, straight, and unbranched.
Strong and flexible.
Bundle of fibbers protein strands.
Resist force in one direction along the longitudinal axis.
Tendons and ligaments.

46
Q

What are reticular fibers? (Proper CT)

A

Network of interwoven fibers (stroma).
Strong and flexible.
Resist force in many directions.
Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and structures).
Sheaths around organs.

47
Q

What are elastic fibers? (Proper CT)

A

Contain elastin protein.
Branched and wavy, not as intense as reticular fibers.
Flexible; return to original length after stretching.
Elastic ligaments of vertebrae and ear lobe.

48
Q

What is the ground substance? (Proper CT)

A

Fills spaces between cells.
Clear and colourless.
Viscous and dense as it slows down pathogens.

49
Q

What are the two categories of connective tissue proper?

A

Loose connective tissue: more ground substance, less fibers such as fat.

Dense connective tissue: more fibers, less ground substance such as tendons.

50
Q

What are the three types of loose connective tissues?

A

These are the packing materials of the body.
Areolar.
Adipose.
Reticular.

51
Q

What is areolar tissue? (Lose Proper CT)

A

Least specialized
Open framework
Viscous ground substance
Elastic - retains shape after stretch
Absorbs shocks
Holds blood vessels and capillary beds
e.g., subcutaneous tissue (under skin)

52
Q

What is adipose tissues? (Lose Proper CT)

A

The main cell is adipocytes.
There are two main kinds.
White fat:
Most common
Stores lipids
Absorbs shocks
Insulator
Brown fat:
Only in infants and young children
More vascularized
Adipocytes have many mitochondria
Breaks down fat
Produces heat

53
Q

What is liposuction?

A

Surgical removal of unwanted adipose tissue
Treatment of obesity & lipodystrophy
Problem may recur as tissue regenerates

54
Q

What is reticular tissue? (Loose Proper CT)

A

Complex and 3D network.
Reticular fibers (stroma): support functional cells (parenchyma).
Reticular organs: spleen, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow, and kidneys.

55
Q

What is dense connective tissue?

A

Tightly packed with high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers(collagenous tissues)
Types:
regular connective tissue
irregular connective tissue

56
Q

What is dense regular connective tissues?

A

Attachment and stabilization
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers:
tendons: attach muscles to bones
ligaments: connect bone to bone and stabilize organs e.g., liver
aponeuroses: CT sheets attached to flat muscles
Subtype:
elastic tissue …

57
Q

What is elastic tissue? (Dense Proper CT)

A

Subtype of dense regular CT
Made mainly of elastic fibers
e.g., elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae

58
Q

What is irregular connective tissue? (Dense Proper CT)

A

Strength in many directions
Interwoven networks of collagen fibers
Locations:
dermis, perichondrium, periosteum, organ capsules, …

59
Q

What is fluid connective tissues? (Dense Proper CT)

A

Include:
blood
lymph
Components:
watery matrix of dissolved proteins
specific cell types (formed elements)

60
Q

What is blood? (Dense Proper CT)

A

Fluid content (plasma)
Formed elements:
red blood corpuscles (RBCs) (erythrocytes)
white blood cells (WBCs) (leukocytes)
platelets (thrombocytes)

61
Q

What is lymph? (Dense Proper CT)

A

Collected from interstitial space
Monitored by immune system
Transported by lymphatic vessels
Returned to venous system

62
Q

What are the two supportive connective tissue?

A

Support soft tissues and body weight:
cartilage:
gel-type ground substance
for shock absorption and protection
bone (osseous tissue):
calcified (rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
for weight support

63
Q

What is cartilage?

A

Structure:
cells: chondrocytes located within lacunae (chambers)
matrix: firm gel
No blood vessels
Perichondrium: dense irregular CT
covers cartilage surfaces
has 2 layers:
outer, fibrous layer (for strength)
inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)

64
Q

What are the three types of cartilage?

A

Hyaline
Elastic
Fibrocartilage

65
Q

What is hyaline cartilage?

A

Tough, flexible support.
Reduces friction in joints.
Translucent matrix.
No predominate fibers.
Synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea.
(Most abudnet)

66
Q

What is elastic cartilage?

A

Flexible support.
Tightly packed elastic fibre.
Found in the external ear and epiglottis.

67
Q

What is fibrocartilage?

A

Resits compression.
Prevents bone-to-bone contact.
Limits movement.
Very dense collagen fibers.
Found in weight baring areas such as knee pads, symphysis pubis, and intervertebral discs.

68
Q

What is bone (osseous tissues)?

A

Strong: calcium salt deposits.
Resists shattering: flexible collagen.
Faster to heal, and very vascular.
Calcium makes bones strong.
Structure:
bone cells (osteocytes):
located within lacunae
arranged around central canals within matrix
canaliculi: small channels through matrix – access blood supply
Rich blood supply
Periosteum: dense irregular CT
covers bone surfaces
2 layers:
outer fibrous layer
inner cellular layer

69
Q

What fascia?

A

Body’s connective tissue framework
Layers & wrappings that support and surround organs
Provides routes for blood vessels, lymphatics & nerves

70
Q

What is Marfan syndrome?

A

Connective tissue disorder
Inherited condition (autosomal dominant)
Abnormal fibrillin-1 protein
Manifestations:
skeletal:
tall – long limbs & fingers – loose joints – …
ocular:
lens dislocation
cardiovascular:
heart valve abnormality – aortic dissecting aneurysm

71
Q

What is muscle tissue?

A

It is specialized for contraction?
There are three types:
skeletal muscles:
body muscles responsible for movement
cardiac muscles:
only in the heart
smooth muscles:
walls of hollow, contracting organs
(e.g., blood vessels - urinary and digestive tracts)

72
Q

What are the three classifications of muscles?

A

Striated (banded) or Nonstriated (not banded = smooth)
Voluntary (consciously) or Involuntary (automatically)
Mononucleated or Multinucleated

73
Q

What are skeletal muscle cells?

A

Started, voluntary, and multinucleated.
Long and thin.
Produced by stem cells.
They do not divide because they have no centrioles.
Can be up to a meter long.

74
Q

What cardiac muscles cells (Cardiomyocytes)?

A

Striated, involuntary, and mono-nucleated.
Branching, connected at intercalated discs.
Do not divide.
Regulated by pacemaker cells.

75
Q

What are smooth muscle cells?

A

Nonstraited, involuntary, and mononucleated.
Small and tapered, spindle shaped.
Can divide and regenerate.

76
Q

What is neural (nervous) tissue?

A

Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
Rapidly senses internal or external environment
Processes information and controls responses
98% in the brain & spinal cord

77
Q

What are types of neural cells?

A

Neurons:
functional nerve cells
perform electrical communication
do not divide (no centrioles)
Neuroglia:
support cells
repair and supply nutrients to neurons

78
Q

What is the purpose of body membranes?

A

Physical barriers
Line or cover portions of the body
Consist of:
epithelium
areolar connective tissues (lamina propria)

79
Q

What are the four types of membranes?

A

Mucous
Serous
Cutaneous (skin)
Synovial

80
Q

What is the mucous membrane (mucosa)?

A

Lines passageways with external connections.
Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
Structure:
epithelial surfaces:
moist to reduce friction and
facilitate absorption and excretion
connective tissue (lamina propria):
areolar tissue

81
Q

What is the serous membrane?

A

Line cavities not open to the outside.
Thin but strong.
There are two layers; parietal layer which lines the cavity, and the visceral layer which covers organs, there is fluid in between to reduce friction.

82
Q

What are the different cavities and serous membranes?

A

Pleura; covers lungs.
Pericardium; covers heart.
Peritoneum; covers abdominal organs.

83
Q

What is the cutaneous membrane (skin)?

A

Outer suave of the body.
Thick, waterproof and dry.
Structure: Epithelium, areolar tissue, dense irregular CT.

84
Q

What is the synovial membrane?

A

Line articulating joint cavities.
Produce synovial fluid (lubricant).
Protect bone ends.
Lack true epithelium.

85
Q

How do tissue injuries repair?

A

Tissues respond to injuries to maintain homeostasis.
Cells restore homeostasis with two processes; inflammation and regeneration (healing).

86
Q

What is inflammation?

A

Tissue’s first response to injury.
Triggered by trauma and infection.
Manifestation of inflammatory repose as pain, tenderness, swelling, redness, and hotness.

87
Q

What is the first response in the inflammatory process?

A

Damaged cells release chemicals (e.g., PGs – K+) in the interstitial fluid
Cells break down:
lysosomes release enzymes 
tissue destruction = necrosis
necrotic tissue & cellular debris = pus
abscess = pus trapped in an enclosed area
Mast cells release chemicals mediators (e.g., histamine – heparin) 
Dilation of blood vessels (vasodilation)

88
Q

What is the second response in the inflammatory process?

A

Vasodilation: 
increases blood circulation in the area
warmth and redness
brings more nutrients and O2
removes wastes
Plasma diffuses into the area: 
swelling and pain
Phagocytic white blood cells:
clean up the area

89
Q

What is the regeneration (healing) process?

A

Starts when injury or infection is cleaned up
Depends on cell type:
epithelial & connective tissue:
regenerate well
cardiac cells & neurons:
do not regenerate
wounds heal by connective tissue scar
New cells:
produced by stem cells
migrate into area
Fibroblasts move into necrotic area:
lay down collagen fibers (scar tissue)

90
Q

What are the effects of aging on tissues?

A

Thinning of epithelial and connective tissues
Increased bruising and impaired healing
Increased bone brittleness and fractures
Joint pain and degeneration
Muscle wasting and weakness
Cardiovascular disease
Mental deterioration