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CCC > Thought: Reasoning + Decision making > Flashcards

Thought: Reasoning + Decision making Flashcards

1
Q

Research in the area of thinking and reasoning is typically grouped under what 4 main headers?

A
  1. Judgement
  2. Decision making
  3. Problem solving
  4. Reasoning
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2
Q

What is judgement?

A
  • component of decision making

- concerns calculating the likelihood of certain events

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3
Q

What is decision making?

A

Selecting one out of a number of potential options

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4
Q

What is problem solving?

A

The cognitive process that takes us from recognising that there is a problem through to developing a solution

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5
Q

What is reasoning?

A
  • component of problem solving

- concerns determining what conclusions can be drawn given various statements (premises) are assumed to be true

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6
Q

The main part of the brain related to the thinking and reasoning components is?

A

frontal cortex

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7
Q

How good are at making judgement under uncertainty as shown by Giggerenzer + Hoffrage in 1999?

A

NOT v good

  • particularly bad at estimating the likelihood of things
  • better if questions rephrased to emphasise frq vs probability/ fractions/ percentages
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8
Q

What did Khaneman + Tversky say we use when making judgments?

A
  • heuristics
  • due to cognitive/ time limitations
    • Availability heuristics
    • Representativeness
    • Anchoring + adjustment
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9
Q

What is the availability heuristic?

A
  • used when estimate frequencies/ probabilities on the basis of ease with which examples come to mind
  • bee vs shark
    = 300 times more like to be killed by a bee
  • wine cork vs spider
    = 30 times more likely to be killed by cork
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10
Q

Do we always use the availability heuristic?

A

Nope
- Oppenheimer, 2004
- which name more common: Bush vs Stevenson
= 88% got it right = Stevenson

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11
Q

What is the representativeness heuristic?

A
  • used when events that are representative or typical of a class are assigned a high probability of occurrence
  • TOM W
  • humanities 3x as more graduates vs comp Sci
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12
Q

What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

A
  • used when we begin with an initial estimate of the answer and then attempt to adjust this estimate
  • anchoring exerts its effect even when the og value is abviously arbitary
  • EG Shopping: £100 jeans (anchoring) now £50!
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13
Q

What did Tverskey + Kahneman in 1974 find about the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

A
  • random number wheel
  • Stage 1 = 65
    • avg estimate for chance a country selected at random from UN is Africa = 65%
  • Stage 2 = 10
    • avg estimate = 25%
  • *people didn’t account for the change in anchoring
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14
Q

According to the utility theory, how should we make a decision?

A
  • choose the option which has the greatest utility (value to us)
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15
Q

Why did Khaneman + Tversky in 1984 develop the “prospective Theory”?

A
  • to explain why people were making the wrong probability decision
    • LOSS AVERSION - focusing more on the loss bit described vs potential gains even though the chances is actually in your favour
  • explain framing effect
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16
Q

What is the framing effect?

A

where people chose the option where loss is not expressed even tho it literally is the same chances

17
Q

What is the Somatic Marker Hypothesis by Damasio?

A

Associations between possible routes of actions + the emotional state they resulted in on previous occasions are stored
- these somatic markers reinstated physiologically and used to bias attention towards the most appropriate decision

18
Q

What is problem solving?

A
  • goal directed
  • an immediate solution is not available
  • involves conscious cognitive processes
19
Q

What are the 3 parts of a problem?

A
  • Start state: the problem
  • The operators: Things you might do
  • The goal state: The solution
20
Q

If you are clear will all parts of a problem, what is that called?

A

well-specified

- researchers focus only on well-specified problems

21
Q

what were earlier approaches to understanding problem solving?

A
  1. Behaviourism
    - trial and error learning
  2. Gestalt psychology
    - insight
    - - “aha” xp resulting in a transformation of the problem
    - Functional fixedness
    - - reducing the item to its designed function when trying to solve a problem
22
Q

Why do people find the tower of Hanoi task difficult?

A
  • they have to make a move which may seem counterintuitive
23
Q

What are the 2 different types of reasoning?

A
  • Deductive
    • psy mostly study this one
  • Inductive
    • but most science based on this one
24
Q

What is the difference between deductive + inductive reasoning?

A

D: when the conclusion is certain if premises are true
I: when conclusions are likely to be valid, but require further evidence, and can be regarded as hyp

25
Q

What is a syllogism?

A

a deductive scheme of a formal argument consisting of a major + minor premise + a conclusion

26
Q

what are the 2 different conditional reasoning which are valid inferences?

A
  1. Modus Ponens
    - mode by assertion
    - - if it rains then Bob is wet. It rains = bob is wet
  2. Modus Tollens
    - mode by denial
    - - If it rains then Bob is wet. It doesn’t rain = Bob is not wet
27
Q

What are the 2 different conditional reasoning which are invalid inferences?

A
  1. Affirming the consequent
    - It it rains, the bob is wet. Bob is wet = therefore it rains
  2. Denying the antecedent
    - If it rains then Bob is wet, it doesn’t rain = Bob is not wet
28
Q

What should you be cautious of when testing hypothesis?

A
  • confirmation bias

- Watson’s selection task

29
Q

What was Watson’s selection task?

A

Rule “if there is a vowel on one side there is an even number on the other side”
E, 7, K, 2
Which cards need to be turned over to confirm rule?
= only turn cards that may provide falsification = E, 7

30
Q

What is falsification and confirmation?

A
  • Falsification = if a card doesn’t obey the rule, you know the rule is invalid
  • Confirmation = if a card does obey the rules, you learn nothing as another card may not = USELESS

CCC (16 decks)

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