Thinking & Intelligence Flashcards
Knowledge Representation
mental representation: hypothetical ‘internal’ cognitive symbol that represents external reality
– Analogical vs. symbolic
Analogical representations
Mental representations which have some physical characteristics of actual objects – Images
Symbolic representations
Abstract mental representations don’t correspond to physical characteristics of actual objects – Words
don’t really look like what they are corresponding to
Analogical Representations
We form mental images of many objects
–allow us to answer questions about objects not in our presence
Analogical Representations
–Also allows us to solve problems
•Allows us to think things through
–we can manipulate these mental images
•It takes longer for them to answer question when more mental rotating was required
Knowledge Categorization
•use symbolic representations (words) to represent much of our knowledge
Categorization
process of grouping things based on shared information + similarity
Concept
mental representation that groups object, events/relations around common themes
–So you don’t have to store everything individually
–Your knowledge of apples is grouped with your general knowledge about “fruit”
Basic level categories/concepts
–Located in the middle of the hierarchy
–terms most often used in conversation, easiest to pronounce, level at which prototypes exist + which most thinking occurs
Defining Attribute Model
Objects categorized according to certain set of rules/specific set of features
–Membership determined on an all-or-none basis
–“A triangle is a figure having three angles and three sides” if it meets the rule then that’s a triangle
Problems with the defining attribute model
–often make exceptions to our rules
–Some attributes more important for defining category
–Some concepts appear are more representative
not an all or none principles
Prototype Model
Objects categorized according to how closely resemble “prototype” of category
–Allows for flexibility in representation of concepts
–Explains why some category members are better examples than others
–Problem: How is the prototype chosen?
Exemplar Model
all members we encountered form concept
•we compare it to all previous examples of concept
•when we see something new, seems to best fit a certain concept
•sometimes use rule based/resemblance based
Exemplar Model
–representation of bird consists of all of the birds you have encountered
–If see something new + most closely resembles the birds you have encountered, you conclude that it is a bird
Organization of Concepts
can follow either a rule-based (defining attribute)/resemblance-based (prototype/exemplar) approach, it just depends on the situation
Organization of Concepts
–Seeing a bat dart by in the night
•Initial reaction may be “bird” based on resemblance
•But would see that it shares more features with mammals than birds - based on rules
Schemas
- knowledge goes beyond lists of facts about items
* help us perceive, organize + process info: allow us to function effectively within complex daily environments
Schemas
•scripts: Schemas about sequences of events in certain situations
–script for going to a restaurant
Reasoning
Using info to determine if a conclusion is valid/reasonable
–If I decide to become a doctor, will I make a lot of money?
Decision making
Attempting to select best alternative among several options
–Which POSt should I select?
Problem solving
Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal
–How can I make sure I get into the POSt I want?
Deductive Reasoning
reason from general to the specific using belief/rule to determine if a conclusion is valid
–“Doctors make more money than the average person. So if I decide to be a doctor, chances are I’ll make good money.”
Deductive Reasoning
Syllogisms: Logical arguments containing premises (statements) and a conclusion. (If someone is a doctor, then they make a lot of money)
if x is true then y is true
Inductive reasoning
reason from specific to general using examples/instances to determine if conclusion is likely to be true
–“Aunt Barbara is a doctor and she’s the richest person in the family…” - Anecdotal evidence
•Both types of reasoning have their flaws + can lead to inappropriate conclusions
Heuristics
Shortcuts/rules of thumb used to reduce amount of thinking needed to make a decision
•If we devoted all our cognitive processes, we would take too long to decide
–“I did best in bio, so I should specialize in that”
•but can lead to biases
Benefits of heuristics
–Require minimal cognitive resources
–Allows us to decide quickly
–Often lead to reasonably good decisions
Availability Heuristic
Estimating frequency of event based on how easily examples come to mind
–Which is more frequent in the English language?
Words that begin with the letter K/as the third letter
Representativeness Heuristic
Making judgments likelihood based on how similar person/object is to prototype for that category
–E.g., Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in antinuclear demonstrations. Which is more likely?
Linda is a bank teller/Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.
Conjunction fallacy
mistaken belief that finding a specific member in two overlapping categories (bank tellers & feminists) is more likely than finding any member of one of the larger, general categories (bank tellers)
conjunction fallacy
•By choosing option “B”, we ignore base rates (the frequency of an event occurring)
we are distracted by info and ignore base rates
Anchoring Effects
individual attempts to solve a problem involving numbers + uses previous knowledge to keep (anchor) response within a limited range
anchors can also be introduced by other people (not just internally generated)
•Internal guesses
Framing Effects
changes in way info is perceived by way in which info presented
•framing decision to emphasize potential losses/gains of decision
•Whichever part they emphasizes changes/highlight changes the way you think about it
Loss aversion
Losing much worse than gaining is good = ppl try to avoid situations that involve loss
•Ordering + size matters: best to order things from largest to smallest, makes smaller donations smaller
•Know you’re audiences
problem solving strategies
–Subgoals: taking steps
–Restructuring: looking at it from a new perspective
–Working backward: start at end
functional fixedness
-using objects for diff functions
Intelligence
human ability to use knowledge, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly + adapt to environmental challenges
•Diff approaches
•Breakdown intelligence to diff components
Intelligence
–numerous approaches to studying intelligence + numerous components of intelligence
Intelligence Assessment: Psychometric approach
Achievement: tests in class, not trying to predict, how much do you know
-aptitude tests: IQ
•SAT: trying to predict how well you’re gonna do in college
Intelligence Assessment: Cognitive approach
–Examining mental abilities that underlie intelligence (reaction time, working memory capacity)
Intelligence Assessment: Biological approach
–How brain processes info
brain functioning through brain imaging
Sample WAIS-IV Question
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Infamous SAT Question
- Runner:Marathon = envoy:embassy/martyr:massacre/oarsman:regatta/referee:tournament/horse:stable
- Culturally biased
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
score on a normed test of intelligence (how score compares to other people who have take the test before you)
–avg IQ set at 100, with a standard deviation of 15
•Helpful, but lots of other factors
General Intelligence (g)
idea that one general factor underlies all mental abilities
•Spearman
Fluid intelligence - Cattell
Info processing in novel/complex circumstances (think quickly + flexibly=working memory)
WM, tends to decline with age, info processing
Crystallized intelligence - Cattell
Knowledge acquired through experience + ability to use this knowledge to solve problems (LTM, how much info do you know - tends to expand and expand)
•Related intelligence
Howard Gardner - multiple intelligences
skills in a variety of different domains
•Not related intelligences
•Ability in one is diff in another
–Recognizes ppl can be average/deficient in some domains + outstanding in others
Howard Gardner - multiple intelligences
Musical intelligence
•Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
•Linguistic intelligence
•Mathematical/logical intelligence
Howard Gardner - multiple intelligences
-Visual/spatial intelligence
•Intrapersonal intelligence
•Interpersonal intelligence
Sternberg (1999) proposed 3 types of intelligence
–Analytical: book smart, school
–Creative: outside box
–Practical: everyday life, street smart
Emotional intelligence (EQ)
social intelligence emphasizes ability to manage one’s emotions, recognize emotions in others, understand emotional language + use emotions to guide thoughts and actions
recognizing + managing emotions of yours + others
•Predictive of grades in uni: dealing with anxiety
Emotions
immediate responses to environmental events
–Not the same as moods: not specifically linked to anything, more general
•Involve thoughts + physiological responses
Emotions
–Adaptive
–Communicative
–Subjective
Emotions are Adaptive
•alter cognition
–Negative emotions narrow attention
–Positive emotions broaden attention
Emotions are Adaptive
•trigger action tendencies: –Positive emotions lead to creativity + exploring –Negative emotions promote withdrawal •Guides our behaviour •Promotes certain behaviour
Emotions are Adaptive
•Good feelings often signal progressing toward a goal, while negative feelings may indicate opposite
–Somatic markers: Bodily reactions from emotional evaluation of consequences = Gut feelings
•Iowa Gambling Task: Before they know it, they’ll switch to good decks because they start getting a bad feelings (somatic markers)
Emotions are Adaptive
•Happy: think safe so you can be more creative + explore
•Negative: withdrawal, somethings wrong
Expressions of emotion are also adaptive
–Help us predict other people’s behaviour + learn what others think of our own behaviour
Primary (or basic) emotions
Evolutionarily adaptive emotions humans share across cultures; associated with biological + physical states
–Happiness, anger, disgust, fear, sadness, also perhaps surprise + contempt
Secondary emotions
Blends of primary emotions, including states such as remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation
Emotions are Communicative
Darwin proposed those able to express certain emotions reproduced + pass along their genes
–Universality of facial expressions
Emotions are Communicative
Many ppl believe emotional facial expressions initially served physiological functions + later took on more social/ communicative functions + became more exagerrated
Display rules
Rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions suitable to given situations
–Identification of facial expressions better within cultures than betw cultures
which emotions are appropriate to display, depends on culture
Emotional Expression Across Cultures
Individualism correlated with expression norms for happiness + surprise
all cultures endorsed expressions toward in-groups more than out-groups
•Particularly for sadness, less so for contempt + disgust
•Individualist: western, high appropriate to express emotions
•More likely to endorse expression of positive emotions
Need to belong
need for interpersonal attachments fundamental motive evolved for adaptive purposes
–Belonging to groups important for survival + well-being
–lack of social contact can lead to loneliness + despair
•Need to be connected, more ppl lonely more likely to treat other things as ppl
Emotions & Interpersonal Relations
Interpersonal emotions (embarrassment, guilt) may be just as adaptive as emotions like fear
Emotions & Interpersonal Relations
guilt strengthen relationships
-Prevents people from engaging in behaviours that would harm relationships, while encouraging behaviours that strengthen relationships
–Displays of guilt show you care, strengthens social bonds
–effective at getting people to do what we want
Emotions are Subjective
–Some experiencing more intense +/ wider variety of emotions than others
–Alexithymia: No subjective experience of emotion
Theories of Emotion
Importance of + relationship betw, bodily responses, cognitive responses + emotional experiences
James-Lange Theory
Physical changes lead to specific emotions
– “We feel… afraid because we tremble”
emotion experience is response to physiological expression + emotional expression
James-Lange Theory: facial feedback hypothesis
If emotional expressions influence subjective emotional experiences, then act of forming a facial expression should elicit specific, corresponding emotion
•When smiling muscles are activated = more positive emotional response
Cannon-Bard Theory
physiological response + subjective experience of emotion happen independently and simultaneously
Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory
Both physiological response + cognitive appraisal of situation determines emotional experience
•After shot of epinephrine told what they were gonna experience
•Half expecting a response, half not
•A confederate waiting with them, one happy/one angry
Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory
– Independent variables:
•Type of injection (adrenaline vs. placebo)
•Type of reaction expected (aroused vs. nothing)
•Type of confederate (euphoric vs. angry)
Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory
– Dependent variables:
•How did the participants’ behave?
•What mood did they report?
Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory: results
- With happy: informed participants less reactive to situation
- Don’t know why they’re feeling aroused
- Think they must feel this way because of situation
Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory
Interesting implication: We can misattribute the source of our physiological response
–Misattribution of arousal
Attraction or Fear?
Those interviewed on the scarier bridge more likely to call interviewer + ask her out an a date (39% vs. 9%)
fear arousal to attraction of her
