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PSY100 > Learning, Attention & Memory > Flashcards

Learning, Attention & Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

enduring change in behaviour, resulting from experience

•learning associations

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2
Q

Conditioning

A

process environmental stimuli + behavioural responses become connected
–Classical/Pavlovian: learn 2 types of events go together
–Operant/Instrumental: learn behaviour leads to particular outcome

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3
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

neutral stimulus elicit a reflexive response because associated with stimulus already produces that response
neutral: no reactions, no reflexive response
• pair it with something that produces response

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4
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (US) + Unconditioned response (UR)

A

US: automatic have reaction to, automatically elicits response
UR: salivating, automatic response

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5
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS) + Conditioned response (CR)

A

CS: neutral becomes paired with US
CR: looks similar to UR, reaction to CS, but not identical

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6
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

US (food) produces UR (salivation)
neutral produces no salivation response
US presented just after neutral repeatedly, US continues to produce UR
neutral stimulus alone produces CR

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7
Q

Acquisition

A

gradual formation of an association between the conditioned + unconditioned stimuli
•Best when US presented right after CS

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8
Q

Extinction

A

process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
take pairing away, eventually response extinguished, now learning tone doesn’t = food anymore

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9
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

process in which a previously extinguished response re-emerges following presentation of the conditioned stimulus
we wait, present CS again, produces some CR still

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10
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response
not a specific stimulus, but also any identical stimulus
• Not just the tone, but any tone

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11
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
know 1 tone leads to food, but other doesn’t

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12
Q

Second-order conditioning

A

something is consistently paired with the conditioned stimulus, without the unconditioned stimulus, and leads to a conditioned response
associating some other stimulus with CS, then this other stimulus starts eliciting CR

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13
Q

Phobias

A

acquired fears that are out of proportion to the real threat of the object or situation
•little albert: came to associate all white things with terrified response
•paired white rat + loud noises
•amygdala crucial for fear conditioning

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14
Q

Classical Conditioning: Later Developments

A
  • Not all CS-CR pairings are the same!

* Some associations are easier to learn than others

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15
Q

Conditioned food aversion

A

Associating a particular food with an unpleasant outcome (i.e., illness). Can be formed in one trial, even if the illness doesn’t occur right away.
•even if food isn’t the thing that makes you sick

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16
Q

Biological preparedness

A

animals are genetically programmed to fear some objects more than others
we’re programmed to fear particular objects that makes sense we are afraid of them. They pose much more of a realistic threat
– E.g., phobias about snakes and heights are more common than phobias about squirrels and staplers

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17
Q

Prediction

A

In order for learning to take place, the CS must

accurately predict the US

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18
Q

Rescorla-Wagner model

A

cognitive model of classical conditioning which states that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising
– Because this leads to greater effort by the animal to understand why the US appeared
when US unexpected/surprising, it makes us wonder what caused it
•More unexpected, more encouragement to look for cues

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19
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future

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20
Q

Thorndike’s law of effect

A

behaviour that leads to a “satisfying state of affairs” will more likely occur again, and any behaviour that leads to an “annoying state of affairs” will less likely recur.

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21
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

-cat in the box
if cat hits lever, door opens, get food
•Eventually accidentally press the lever
•After a while cat learns what to do to get out of box

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22
Q

Reinforcer

A

stimulus that occurs after a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
–Primary: satisfy biological need
secondary: money that associate with rewards

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23
Q

Shaping

A

reinforcing behaviours that are increasingly similar to the desired behaviour
–Reinforcing successive approximations eventually produces the desired behaviour by teaching the animal to discriminate which behaviour is being reinforced
•We can’t just wait around for them to accidentaly do it
•Everytime animal gets a little bit closer to the trick, we reward them

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24
Q

Positive + Negative reinforcement

A

• Positive reinforcement: Increases the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the administration of a (positive, rewarding) stimulus
adding positive stimulus
• Negative reinforcement: Increases the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the removal of a (negative, aversive) stimulus
taking away negative stimulus

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25
Q

Positive + Negative punishment

A

• Positive punishment: Decreases the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the administration of a (negative, punishing) stimulus
by adding negative stimulus
• Negative punishment: Decreases the probability of a behaviour being repeated by the
removal of a (positive, pleasurable) stimulus
removal positive stimulus

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26
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

results in fast learning,but also fast extinguishing as soon as the reinforcement is removed
when association is there everytime, learn faster
• When take away reinforcer, so it’s easily extinguished

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27
Q

Partial reinforcement

A

behaviour is reinforced intermittently
some of the time
•Variable ratio most effective (slot machine)

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28
Q

Types of Partial reinforcement

A

– Ratio schedule: Based on number of times the behaviour
occurs (e.g., you get paid for every 10 toys you build) # of times behaviour occurs
– Interval schedule: Based on the passage of time (e.g., you get paid for every hour of work)Rewarding based on time
– Fixed schedule: Reinforcement is consistent and predictable, always the same
– Variable schedule: Reinforcement is variable and unpredictable (occurs after a varying number of behaviours, or a varying amount of time) unpredictable

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29
Q

Biological Constraints

A

Animals have a difficult time learning behaviours that are incompatible with innate, adaptive behaviours
– Conditioning is most effective when the association between the behavioural response and the reinforcement is similar to the animal’s built-in predispositions
hard to get animal to do something if it’s opposite something it does naturally

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30
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning that occurs without reinforcement
• Edward Tolman argued that reinforcement had more impact on performance than acquisition/learning
– Showed that rats could learn a path through a maze without reinforcement (latent learning), but not reveal their learning until it is reinforced (red line below)
animals learn without reinforcements
•Once you add reinforcement, they perform better + faster
•Evidence shows that it has more to do with performance

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31
Q

Insight learning

A

occurs without reinforcement

aha moments, no need reinforcement

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32
Q

Observational Learning

A

behaviours are acquired or modified following exposure to others performing the behaviour
• E.g., Bobo Doll Experiment – Vicarious reinforcement
•See others engaging in behaviour, whether they get reward/punished
•Vicarious: seeing others being reinforced/punished for behaviour

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33
Q

Superstitious Behaviour

A

tendency to associate chance events with other events that occur together in time can lead us to associate chance events unrelated to reinforcements or punishments

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34
Q

Biological Basis of Learning

A

• The experience of pleasure usually results from activation of dopamine neurons in the nucleus accumbens
– More dopamine is released under deprived conditions (e.g., getting food when you are starving is more rewarding then getting food when you are not starving)
• More dopamine!more reinforcement
• More deprived = more dopamine release

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35
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

strengthening of a synaptic connection so that postsynaptic neurons are more easily activated
– Neurons that fire together (e.g., those that signal the CS and US), wire together (synapses become strengthened, so that when one fires, the other fires automatically)
•Synapses become strengthened
•After LTP: more receptors + neurotransmitters

36
Q

Attention

A

selective
–It has to be selective because it is limited – Selective attention is adaptive
no need to pay attention for vast majority of thing
•No need to encode a lot of things/details

37
Q

Change blindness

A

common failure for people to notice large changes in their environment
-directions test
don’t notice it’s a diff person

38
Q

Visual search tasks

A

– Searching for one feature is fast and automatic (parallel processing: effectively blocking further processing of others)
• The target will “pop out” at you
– Searching for two (or more) features is slow and effortful (serial processing)
• Must examine each target one-by-one
we have to scan through, so it takes longer

39
Q

Models of Memory: information processing model

A

Encoding: Information is acquired and processed into a neural code that the brain can use
Storage: The retention of encoded information (whether it is for a second or a lifetime)
Retrieval: Recalling or remembering the stored information when we need it

40
Q

modal memory model:

A

Sensory input – sensory memory (unattended info lost) – [attention] – short term (unrehearsed info lost) – [encoding] – longterm (some memory may be lost over time) – [retrieval] – short term

41
Q

Sensory memory

A

Memory for sensory information that lasts only a fraction of a second. We are not usually even aware of it
•Occurs when light, sound, odour, taste/tactile impression leaves vanishing trace on nervous system fraction of a second
•Allow us to experience world as continuous stream rather than discrete sensations

42
Q

Short-term or Working memory

A

Memory that will remain for only about 20-30 seconds, unless you actively think about or rehearse it
• E.g., remembering a phone number or licence plate

43
Q

Working Memory

A

7 (plus or minus 2) (though some argue for less)

• Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember

44
Q

4 components of WM

A

– Phonological loop: Auditory information, repeating
– Visuospatial sketchpad: Visual and spatial information, remembering where things are
– Episodic buffer: Information about oneself, personal, autobiographical info
– Central executive: Coordinates information between each component as well as long-term memory

45
Q

Long-term memory

A

relatively permanent storage of information
• Differs from working
memory in terms of both duration and capacity

46
Q

Long-term memory: Explicit memory

A

processes involved when people remember specific information!information that we are consciously aware of
– Declarative memory: Knowledge that can be declared
info we know we have access to

47
Q

Long-term memory: Implicit memory

A

system underlying unconscious memories!
memories we acquire without awareness or intention and do not even know that we know
might not even know you know it

48
Q

Types of Explicit Memory: Episodic memory

A

Memory of your personal past experiences that includes information about the time and place the experiences occurred autobiographical
– E.g., What you did on your last birthday

49
Q

Types of Explicit Memory: Semantic memory

A

Memory for knowledge about the world – things that you know, even though you may not remember where or when you learned it
knowledge of the world
– E.g., The capital of France

50
Q

Types of Implicit Memory: Classical conditioning

A

Knowing that certain music is associated with bad things

associating certain music with certain outcomes

51
Q

Types of Implicit Memory: Repetition priming

A

– Improvement in identifying or processing a stimulus that has been experienced previously
• E.g., Complete the word: ___ory
habitual, automatized

52
Q

Types of Implicit Memory: Procedural memory

A

– Motor skills, habits, and other behaviours that we remember how to do without thinking about it
– E.g., Clive Wearing: worst case of memory loss, lasts 30 sec

53
Q

Memory

A

construction, not accurate
•Memories are mental representations, stored in networks of neurons in the brain
– Organized by meaning and function

54
Q

Long-term Memory: Information Organization - Association networks

A

item’s characteristics + associates linked to it
closer nodes are, the stronger the association
activating a node increases likelihood that closely associated nodes will also be activated
• Activated red, name vehicle, firetruck comes to mind easily because red is activated, so firetruck already activated

55
Q

Long-term Memory: Information Organization - Schemas

A

Hypothetical cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information
process new info in light of that schema
• Fitting it in with what we already know
o Coat hangers, structure already
• Without it, you don’t know what you should remember

56
Q

Long-term Memory: Information Organization - Context dependent memory

A

Memory enhancement that occurs when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation
– May be similar in terms of physical location, background music, odours, etc.
room acts as retrieval cues, similar context as situation when encoding
•Learning list of words underwater/on land and recalling them underwater/on land
•When context match in learning + recalling = better memory

57
Q

Long-term Memory: Information Organization - State dependent memory

A

Memory enhancement that occurs when one’s internal state during the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation
– E.g., mood
if mood same during encoding + recall situation = better memory

58
Q

Biology of Memory

A

• Memories are stored in multiple regions of the brain and linked through memory circuits
– Different memory systems use different brain regions
•Memory for visual linked to visual system
•Depends on type of memory linked to particular memory system

59
Q

Medial temporal lobes

A

Important for the consolidation of new declarative memories
– Responsible for coordinating and strengthening the connections among neurons when something is learned (but not the storage of memories)
– E.g., Patient H.M., Clive Wearing
important for consolidation of new memories
• Transfering WM – LTM

60
Q

Reconsolidation

A

occurs every time a memory is activated: may differ from the original memory
gets reconsolidated after recalling
•Suceptible to mistakes
•H.M got medial temporal lobe taken out

61
Q

Hippocampus within medial temporal lobe region

A

Particularly important for spatial memory!memory for the physical environment (location of objects, direction, cognitive maps)
–Rats and the Morris Water Maze: rat placed in water + learns to swim to platform hidden just below surface
•Place cells: neurons that fire only when rat returns to a specific location
•As rats become familiar, place cells acquire links to aspects of surroundings

62
Q

Forgetting

A

Our ability to forget is actually surprisingly adaptive!
You may owe a lot of your well-being to your ability to forget
– E.g., Jill Price (“The Woman Who Could Not Forget”)
•Ability to forget adaptive for happiness + well being
•Means that we relieve everything all the bad

63
Q

Most forgetting occurs because of interference

A

– Proactive interference: When prior information
inhibits the ability to remember new information
– Retroactive interference: When new information inhibits the ability to remember old information

64
Q

Memory Distortion: Suggestibility

A

Misremembering after
being told misleading information
– E.g., “How fast were the cars going when they ________ into each other?”
when we’re told some info which influences our remembering
•Memory distorted based on misleading info (wording)

65
Q

False memories

A

easy to plant

– E.g., “Remember the time you got lost in the mall?”

66
Q

Memory Distortion: Misattribution

A

misremembering of the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory
–sleeper effect: arguments that initially not persuasive because they come from questionable sources become more persuasive over time
false fame effect: remember name you heard before, likely assume they’re famous

67
Q

Memory Distortion: Cryptomnesia

A

Believing an idea is new (and yours), when really it is based on something you have come across previously (e.g., something you read, something you heard)
–Unintended plagiarism

68
Q

Eye Witness Testimony

A

• It is very difficult to distinguish an accurate eyewitness from an inaccurate one
• Confidence unrelated to accuracy
–Just because someone is very confident in their account of a crime does not mean that they are remembering correctly
• People tend to focus on weapons, or actions, not minor details (clothing, appearance)
•Suspect lineups
•Show them sequentially, more accuracy, reduces likelihood of falsely recognizing someone
•Difficult to distinguish accurate/inaccurate eyewitness
•Can’t use confidence level to gage accuracy
•Focus on weapons + behaviour, bad at remembering minor details

69
Q

Retrieval cues

A
  • helps person sort through vast data in LTM to access right info
  • easier to recognize than recall info
70
Q

Counterconditioning

A

expose to small dose of feared stimulus while they engage in pleasant task

71
Q

Systematic desensitization

A

taught how to relax muscles, asked to imagine feared object/situation while continuing to use relaxation exercises

72
Q

Gender Differences in Learning

A
  • W tend to learn route from map/experience rely on landmarks
  • M keep track of compass direction, make fewer errors in getting to destination, but F better at recalling landmarks
73
Q

Blocking effect

A

CS can prevent acquisition of new CS

74
Q

Occasion setter

A

stimulus associated with CS can be trigger for CS

75
Q

Reinforcer Potency

A
  • Determined by amount of time engages in specific associated behaviour when free to do anything
  • Premack principle: more valued activity can be used to reinforce performance of less valued activity
76
Q

Behaviour Modification

A
  • Use of operant conditioning to eliminate unwanted behaviours + replace them with desirable ones
  • Secondary reinforcement
  • Token economies: ppl earn tokens for completing tasks + lose token for behaving badly, can later trade tokens for objects/privileges
  • Monitoring can identify potential triggers of unwanted behaviour + more conscious of it
77
Q

Optimal foraging theory

A

animals in wild choose own reinforcement schedules

78
Q

Mirror Neurons

A
  • Neurons activated during observations of action
  • Likely to be activated when observes movement that has some goal
  • May help us explain + predict others’ behaviour
  • Neural basis for empathy
79
Q

Habituation

A

decrease in behavioural response following repeated exposure to nonthreatening stimuli
•Reduction in neurotransmitter release

80
Q

Sensitization

A

increase in behavioural response following exposure to threatening stimulus
•Increase in neurotransmitter release

81
Q

cocktail party phenomenon

A

you can focus on single convo in midst of chaotic cocktail party + hear your name
•personally relevant info can get thorugh filter of attention

82
Q

primacy effect + recency effect

A
  • primacy effect: better memory for items presented at beginning (LTM)
  • recency effect: better memory for most recent items, at end of list (WM)
83
Q

levels of processing model

A

more deeply item encoded, more meaning it has + better it is remembered

84
Q

bias encoding

A

culture heavily influence schemas

85
Q

Seven sins of memory

A 
•Transcience: interference 
-absentmindedness: Inattentive/shallow encoding
\+ blocking: forgetting
•Misattribution, suggestibility + bias
•Persistence: ptsd
86
Q

Confabulation

A
  • Unintended false recollection of episodic memory
  • Honest lying: no intention to decieve + unaware that it’s false
  • Recall mistaken facts + when questioned try to make sense of their recollections by adding facts to make story more coherent
87
Q

Memory bias

A

ppl’s memories change over time to be consistent with current beliefs/attitudes
•Tend to remember events casting tem in prominent roles/favourable lights

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