Thinking Critically with Psychological Science - Chapter 1

Question 1

Hindsight Bias

Answer 1

The tenancy to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
(I-Knew-It-All-Along Phenomenon)

Question 2

Overconfidence

Answer 2

Once people know the answer, hindsight makes it seem obvious-so much so that people become overconfident
Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know

Question 3

Limits of intuition

Answer 3

People rely too much on their gut feelings when meeting someone.
(He’s trouble… I know it in my gut)

Question 4

Conformation bias

Answer 4

The tendency for us to overvalue data we receive to support our pre-existing beliefs. Therefore, there is a need for the scientific attitude and method

Question 5

Three main components of the scientific attitude

Answer 5

Curiosity (Passion for exploration)
Skepticism (doubting and questioning)
Humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong)

Question 6

Critical Thinking

Answer 6

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden value, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Question 7

Conducting Research - Hypothesis

Answer 7

• A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a past theory, to enable to us to accept, reject or revise the theory

Question 8

The 3 types of research

Answer 8

Case Study
Survey
Natural Observation

Question 9

Case Study

Answer 9

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals.

Question 10

Survey

Answer 10

A technique for ascertaining the self - reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Question 11

Random Sampling & Wording Effects

Answer 11

• Each member of a population must have an equal change. At least 1500 people
• Must be careful of wording effects - wording can change results of survey

Question 12

Theory

Answer 12

A theory is an explanation that integrates principals, organizes and predicts behavior or events. It is developed after research has been done

Question 13

Correlation

Answer 13

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
R = +0.37
- Low self esteem could cause depression
- Depression could cause low self esteem

Question 14

Correlation Co efficient

Answer 14

A statistical index of the relationship between two things

from - 1 to + 1

Question 15

Scatterplots

Answer 15

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of their relationship between the two variables.

Question 16

Illusory Correlations

Answer 16

Perceived non existent correlations… What we believe, so we see it to be true

Question 17

Experiment

Answer 17

• The backbone to all psychological research
  A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variable) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (Dependent variable)
  By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Question 18

Random Assignments

Answer 18

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre - existing differences between those assigned to different groups

Question 19

Double-blind Procedure

Answer 19

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatments or the placebo.

Question 20

Placebo Effect

Answer 20

Experimental results caused by expectations alone. Any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert (Blind) substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Question 21

Experimental group

Answer 21

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Question 22

Control Group

Answer 22

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serve as a comparison for evaluating the effects of the treatment.

Question 23

Mode

Answer 23

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Question 24

Mean

Answer 24

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
- Can be skewed by a large minority

Question 25

Median

Answer 25

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Question 26

Range

Answer 26

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Question 27

Standard Deviation

Answer 27

A computed measure of how much scores vary around mean

Question 28

Normal Curve

Answer 28

A symmetrical bell - shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data. Most scores fall near the mean

Question 29

Statistical Significance

Answer 29

When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, not due to chance = statistical significance.
Ex: When comparing depression in men and women, the difference is significant. When comparing IQ levels, it is significant

Question 30

When is an observed difference reliable?

Answer 30

1. Representative samples are better than biased samples.
2. Less - variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
3. More cases are better than fewer

Question 31

Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?

Answer 31

Yes, Specific attitudes and behaviors among cultures differ but the basic biology and underlying processes are the same.
Biology determines sex, but culture determines gender

Question 32

Why do psychologists study animals and is it ethical?

Answer 32

Yes, Studying animals gives us the understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology across animals and humans. From animal studies, we have gained insights to devastating and fatal diseases. All researchers who are studying on animals, are required to follow ethical guidelines when caring for the animals.