The Biology of Mind - Chapter 2

Question 1

Phrenology

Answer 1

• The early study of specific mental processes that are located in and associated with certain parts of the brain
• Developed by German physician Franz Gall in the early 1800’s
• Knew the importance of brain size… Bigger brain = smarter the species
• Theorized that personality characteristics were localized, like a sense of humor.
• This was wrong*

Question 2

Neural Communication

Answer 2

• The body is built from billions of interconnected calls called neurons. The system explains how we process information
• Humans and animals operate similarly when processing information

Question 3

Neuron

Answer 3

A nerve cell, or a neuron, the basic building block of the nervous system. Consists of many different parts.
Dendrites (receive messages from other cells)
Axon (passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands)
Cell body (the cell’s life supported center)
Neural Impulse (action potential) (electrical signal traveling down the axon)
Myelin sheath (covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses)
Terminal Branches of Axon (From junctions with other cells)

Question 4

Action Potential

Answer 4

A neural impulse.
A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane.

Question 5

Threshold

Answer 5

Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals from many neurons. When the excitatory signals minus the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential.
A party doesn’t happen until there are more people who want to party then not

Question 6

All-Or-None Response

Answer 6

A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the action potentials strength or speed.
Doesn’t matter how hard you pull a trigger, it doesn’t affect the speed of the bullet
Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the axon.
A slap rather then a tap, can trigger more neurons to fire, but it doesn’t affect speed or intensity

Question 7

Synapse

Answer 7

Synapse is a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

Question 8

Neurotransmitters

Answer 8

Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites o the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential.
Ex: Serotonin, Endorphins

Question 9

Serotonin

Answer 9

Serotonin pathways are involved with mood regulation. Imbalance or lack of serotonin production can lead to depression and anxiety and other mood
disorders
- Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Question 10

Endorphins

Answer 10

Endorphins processed by the brain in the pituitary/adrenal glands in response to pain and stress.
- They also operate during “fight or flight” responses

Question 11

Dopamine

Answer 11

Dopamine pathways are involved in learning, movement, emotion and attention.
- It is associated with diseases such as schizophrenia (too much dopamine) and in Parkinson’s disease (too little) So one experiences tremors, difficulties speaking, walking and expressing emotions.

Question 12

The Nervous System

Answer 12

Consists of all the nerve cells. It is the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system

Question 13

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Answer 13

The brain and spinal cord

Question 14

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Answer 14

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
Nerves connect muscles, glands, and sense organs to the central nervous system.

Question 15

Sensory Neurons

Answer 15

Carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS

Question 16

Motor Neurons

Answer 16

Carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands

Question 17

Interneurons

Answer 17

Connect the sensory neurons and motor neurons

Question 18

Sympathetic Nervous System

Answer 18

“Arouses”

Fight - or - Flight

Question 19

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Answer 19

“Calms”

Rest - and - Digest

Question 20

The Endocrine System

Answer 20

The Endocrine system is the body’s “slow” chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones (estrogen, testosterone, oxytocin, insulin, adrenaline) synthesized by a set of glands

Question 21

Pituitary Gland

Answer 21

Is called the “master gland”. The anterior pituitary lobe releases hormones that regulate other glands. The posterior lobe regulates water and salt balance.

Question 22

Adrenal glands

Answer 22

Adrenal glands consist of the adrenal medulla and the cortex. The medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and emotional situations, while the adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate metabolism

Question 23

Gonads

Answer 23

Sex glands are located in different places in men and women. They regulate bodily development and maintain reproductive organs in adults.

Question 24

Older Brain Structures

Answer 24

The brainstem is the oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull. It is responsible for automatic survival functions.

Question 25

Brainstem

Answer 25

The Medulla is the base of the brainstem and controls heartbeat and breathing.

Question 26

Reticular Formation

Answer 26

Is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Question 27

Thalamus

Answer 27

Is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Question 28

Cerebellum

Answer 28

The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance.
- Reason why we can’t tickle ourselves!

Question 29

The Limbic System

Answer 29

Is the system of neural structures - border of the brainstem and cerebrum
- associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex.

Question 30

Amygdala

Answer 30

Consists of two lima bean - sized neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger.

Question 31

Hypothalamus - Reward Centre

Answer 31

Lies below the thalamus
- activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Question 32

Reward Centre

Answer 32

Rats will cross an electrified grid for self - simulation when electrodes are placed in the hypothalamus.
A.K.A. Reward Centre
- triggered by release of dopamine
- gives a lot of insight into drug use

Question 33

Hippocampus

Answer 33

Processes our long term memories, facts, knowledge, experiences

Question 34

The Cerebral Cortex - 85% of the brain…

Answer 34

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s ultimate control and information processing center

Question 35

Structure of the Cortex

Answer 35

Each brain hemisphere is divided into four lobes that are separated by prominent fissures.

• Frontal lobe (forehead)
• Parietal lobe (top to rear head)
• Occipital lobe (back head)
• Temporal lobe (Side of head)

Question 36

Einstein’s Brain

Answer 36

• When Einstein died in 1955, his family consented to have his brain removed and analyzed
• His inferior parenteral lobe is 15% denser then the normal brain which is responsible for visual spatial cognition, math and logic
• His brain cells were closely packed together, more interconnections and more cross referencing of ideas.

Question 37

MRI Scan

Answer 37

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer - generated images that distinguish among different types of brain tissues. MRI’s can help diagnose disorders

Question 38

Technology To Read The Brain Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Answer 38

An amplified recording of the electrical waves sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. Used to study epilepsy, coma patients, sleep disorders, tumors and strokes

Question 39

PET Scan

Answer 39

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain preforms a given task.
- PET Scans are now mainly used to help diagnose cancers.

Question 40

The Motor Cortex

Answer 40

Is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements.

Question 41

The Sensory Cortex (Parietal Cortex)

Answer 41

Receives information from skin surface and sex organs.

Question 42

Visual Cortex

Answer 42

The functional MRI scan shows the visual cortex is active as the subject looks at faces.
Can diagnose Prosopagnosia - face blindness

Question 43

Auditory Cortex

Answer 43

The f MRI scan shows the auditory cortex is active in patients who hallucinate.

Question 44

Aphasia

Answer 44

Is an impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (Impaired understanding).

Question 45

Pre - Frontal Cortex

Answer 45

1. Allow us to make tough moral decisions and look into the future.
   (In the teenage brain, this part is still developing)
2. It is in conflict with our limbic system and therefore, decisions take longer

Question 46

The Left Hemisphere

Answer 46

Processes reading, writing, speaking, mathematics, and compression skills. In the 1960’s, it was termed as the dominant brain.

Question 47

The Right Hemisphere

Answer 47

The right hemisphere is skilled in processing emotions.

Question 48

What Happens to Split Brain Patients

Answer 48

There have been cases in which the hemispheres are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (corpus Callosum) between them, due to an injury and virus etc.. There are some cases of people being born without a corpus callosum.

Question 49

How do Split Brain Patients Act

Answer 49

• With the corpus Callosum severed, objects (apple) presented in the right visual field can be named.
• Objects (pencil) in the left visual field cannot (can be seen but not spoken about).