theory and methods Flashcards
basics of functionalism
-durkheim argued importance of looking at way societies are social organised
-structuralists generally also positivist theorists. means they see human behaviour shaped by social forces, or social facts, beyond control of individual
-people behave way they do bc social forces bearing down on them propel them in particular direction
durkheims ideas of society
-society shapes individual- it’s top down theory where institutions of society influence behaviour of individual
-social solidarity, socialisation & anomie- social solidarity & cohesion is achieved & maintained through socialisation process and learning of norms & values
the organic analogy
-functionalism sees society as being a social system that’s mud up of inter-dependent social institutions such as family, education, political system, CJS and religion
value consensus and social order
-for parsons, general question sociology tried to answer is ‘how is social order possible?’ how are individuals able to cooperate harmoniously?
-parsons argues social order is achieved through shared culture or a central valve system. a culture is a set of norms, values, beliefs & goals shared by members of society
-value consensus, glue that holds society together
integration of individuals
-value consensus makes social order possible by integrating individuals into social system. system has two mechanisms for ensuring that individuals conform to shared norms:
•socialisation-individuals taught to want to do what system requires them to do
•social control-positive sanctions reward conformity, negative ones punish deviance
the parts of the social system
-parsons model of social system is like a series of building blocks
-norms- at bottom of system specific norms/rules govern individuals actions
-status roles-clusters or sets of norms that tell us how the occupant of a status must act
-institutions- clusters of status roles eg family is an institution made up of related roles of mother, father, child
-subsystems- groups if related institutions
-the social system- sub-systems together make up the social system as a whole
AGIL schema
-parsons outlined 4 basic requirements of society in the AGIL schema:
•adaptation-society must adapt to need needs of all individuals within it
•goal attainment- society must set goals for ppl to strive for & provide necessary resources for them to achieve them
•integration- subsystems must integrate with each other to work towards shared goals
•latency- processes must exist that allow society to continue to function
positivists
-sociology should be studied scientifically
-Weber argues sociologists will always use their values when choosing research topic & identifying concepts.
-values as guide to research
-data collection & hypothesis testing
-values in the interpretation of data
-values and the sociologist as a citizen
interpretivists
1.choose a topic, issue or problem to investigate
2.get background info
3.create a hypothesis or question
4.decide on methodology and sampling frame
5.conduct pilot study
6.conduct research and collect data
7.analyse data
8.draw conclusions
9.evaluate the study
values impacting research questions
becker- best thing researchers can do is clearly state all values they have in research. allows audience to be aware of their values & consider for themselves how research may have been impacted
postmodernist view
-believe in relativism, which is the idea that all major theories are based on values and assumptions, and are therefore not true
-this would mean that postmodernism is also based on values and assumptions and also isn’t true
historical materialism
-humans have material needs. in doing so we use means of production
-through industrialisation, class that owns means of production (bourgeoisie) and class who use it (proletariat)
-Marx refers to productive forces as ‘economic base’, shapes rest of society. ‘superstructure arises from this, includes ideas, institutions, beliefs & behaviour
class society & exploitation
-‘primitive communism’- no classes, no private ownership, no exploitation
-as forces of production grow, different types of class society come and go
-in modern society, r/c control society’s ’surplus product’. difference between what labourers produce & what is needed simply to keep them alive & working
marxism:capitalism
-based on division of labour between bourgeoise & proletariat. different from other class societies becuase of four key features:
1.workers are legally free. sell labour in return for wages to survive
2.means of production is concentrated in fewer hands. competition forces low wages, causing immoderation of proletariat
3.capitalism expands forces of production in pursuit of profit
4.concentration of ownership causes class polarisation
class consciousness
-capitalism does seeds of its own destruction. by polarising classes- growing the w/c & reducing their wages, they can develop consciousness of their own interests & overthrow r/c
-as result, proletariat moves from being class in itself, to a class for itself
ideology
-bourgeoisie also own & control means of mental production- production of ideas
-dominant ideas of society are ideas of r/c
-institutions that produce & spread ideas all serve dominant class by producing ideologies
-ideologies are sets of ideas & beliefs that legitimise existing social order as desirable or inevitable
-ideology fosters false consciousness in subordinate class & sustains inequality
the state, revolution and consumerism
-marx describes state ad armed bodies of men. state exists to protect interest of bourgeoisie. they use state as weapon in class struggle, to protect property, suppress opposition, & prevent revolution
-proletarian revolution that overthrows capitalism will be first revolution by majority against minority
-will abolish state, create classless communist society
strengths of marxism
-recognises importance of economy & how economic changes can inflict wife range of other social institutions
-recognises importance of society’s social structure, links this to ideas, consciousness & behaviour of individuals & groups
-focus on private ownership of means of production provides explanation for extreme social inequalities in worth, income & power in contemporary society
weaknesses of marxism
-over emphasises extent of conflict in society. functionalists argue society is primarily stable, must be some shared values for social life to be possible
-over emphasises social class as source of inequality & conflict, & pays little attention to other sources such as ethnicity, age & gender
-economic base & superstructure is too deterministic, gives too much importance to economy.
gramsci- consent
-hegemony & ideological control- r/c maintain power by shaping ppls ideas, beliefs & values. w/c consent to capitalism, they accept r/c ideas as common sense
-role of ideology- ppls actions guided by dominant ideology, influences decisions. r/c control ideas through education, media & religion
-false consciousness & consent- w/c don’t rebel bc they don’t know how else society should function
-gramsci argued if r/c only used violence, ppl would resist more
-social change can occur if w/c develop alt ideology that challenges r/c dominance
althusser- force
-RSA- state uses force through institutions like army, police & prisons to suppress resistance & compliance with capitalism
-state maintains control by using coercion. even if ideology is influential, physical force ensures w/c don’t rebel
-argues states primary function is to ensure capitalism continues controlling ideology & force
-rejects idea that ideology alone keeps society running. believes society is structures into different lvls, force necessary to maintain capitalism
-ISA- ideology is took alongside repression. media etc shape ppls beliefs to accept capitalism
case study- media portrayal of wealth and success (gramsci)
-argued r/c maintains control through hegemony, shaping public thought to make dominance seem natural. tv shows, social media influencers, celeb culture reinforce idea that wealth is ultimate goal.
-selling sunset, keeping up with the kardashians promote aspirational lifestyle, making wealth look accessible to those who work hard
general features of feminist theory
-inequalities in power & status between men & women, women dominated by men
-inequalities create differences of interest & conflict
-gender roles & inequalities primarily socially constructed m, not based on innate biological differences
-recognition of importance of concept of patriarchy
walby
-sees patriarchy embedded in 6 structures, keep women in position of subordination
-household-women have primary responsibility for housework & childcare, limit access to promotion in paid work
-paid work- women paid lower, lower status
-state-policies in men’s interest
-sexuality-different standards of behaviour expected of men & women
-male violence-against women, condoned or ignored
-cultural institutions- reinforce patriarchy
marxist feminist
-gender quality comes from capitalist society
-women used as cheap labour force, reserve army
-women=expressive role
-Barrett & McIntosh 1982- cereal packet family. capitalism root cause of women’s oppression
-evaluation- don’t explain patriarchy has existed in all societies. men also benefit from women’s subordination
radical feminists
-patriarchy most fundamental form of inequality, ‘sex classes’
-women have shared interest in challenging men who are enemy
-men are key instruments of women’s oppression
-Firestone 1972 & Ortner 1974 propose complete destruction of patriarchy, women free themselves from oppression by living separately
-evaluation- assume all women share common interest, doesn’t explain how to abolish patriarchy
liberal feminist
-women’s inequality comes from sexism stereotyping, gender role socialisation, women’s primary responsibility for housework & childcare, lack of positive role models, etc
-inequality for women will come through gradual process of reform letting women take full part in existing equally
-evaluation- only deals with reducing effects of women’s subordination, important effects on social policy
dual systems feminism
-blend marxist & radical
-capitalism & patriarchy two separate systems that interact & reinforce one another as ‘patriarchal capitalism’
-generates dual roles-women as home makers & paid workers
-evaluation- primarily theoretical approach, doesn’t offer many solutions to problems of women’s subordination
intersectional feminism
-subordination of women & women’s experiences of oppression can take diverse forms in different contexts & social groups
-case in postmodern societies
-emphasise that different forms of discrimination can become intensified when they combine
-evaluation- recognise ‘broad brush’ fem theories don’t take into account diversity in nature & experience of women’s subordination
features of social action theories
-social structures are socially constructed
-emphasis pls ed on voluntarism of ppl to do things & form their own identities, instead of being formed from external social forces
-focus of research placed on individual or small groups
-ppls behaviour viewed as being driven by beliefs, meanings, feelings
-interpretivists
symbolic interactionism
-society built up by interactions between ppl which take place on basis of meanings held by individuals
-herbert blumer suggests interactionism has 3 basic features:
•actions based on meanings given to situations
•meanings based on interactions & experienced
•meanings arise from interpretive process, ppl try to interpret meanings others give to their actions by imagining themselves in their position
symbolic interactionism: cooley- the looking glass self 1992
-individuals own sense of self is created by their interactions with other ppl
-ides of self comes from how we understand others see us
-we consider image of ourselves reflected in reactions of other ppl to us, may modify view of ourselves
-self concept & social role not simply handed down by social structure, but socially constructed
-self fulfilling prophecy
symbolic interactionism- labelling theory
-people label or define individuals & situations in particular ways, will affect way those labelled behave
symbolic interactionism- Goffman: dramaturgical model 1990
-studied ways people construct meanings & interpretations in process of interaction
-based on idea of society being like a stage
-like actors on a stage, ppl in society constantly engaged in managing impressions they give to other ppl by putting on a ‘show’
-impression management
-achieved by use of symbols
-everyone is engaged in process of manipulating others & being manipulated to give best impression
symbolic interaction positive evaluations
+shows human beings are ones that create & negotiate meanings. ppl aren’t puppets moulded by social system. not deterministic
+recognises to fully explain ppls actions & creation of social order it’s necessary to understand motivations & meanings ppl give to behaviour
+provides insights into how social construction of meanings through interaction has consequences for individuals
symbolic interactionism negative evaluation
-doesn’t pay enough attention to structure of society & constraints on individual behaviour
-ppl don’t have free choices
-doesn’t really explain ppls motivations
-tends to underestimate or ignore distribution of power in society
-postmodernists suggest action theory is as much a meta narrative as any other theory that claims to provide full explanation of social life
social action theory- Max Weber
-classifies action into 4 different types:
•instrumentally rational action- actor calculates most efficient means of achieving given goal
•value rational action- action towards a goal that is desirable for one’s own sake
•traditional action- customs, habitual actions, which are often automatic
•affectual action-action which expresses emotion
general evaluation of action theory
-marxists: action theorists ignores impact of capitalism. believe that ppl have little choice in their actions as they’re constantly oppressed
-feminists: action theorists ignore power of patriarchy. believe women need to be studied on large scale to address social inequalities
•functionalists:action theorists disregard influence of social structures specifically the family
