7.globalisation and crime (c&d) Flashcards
how has globalisation impacted crime- global criminal economy
-as societies become more interconnected, crime increases across national borders. there are new opportunities for crime, new means for committing crime and new offences, such as various cyber crimes
how has globalisation impacted crime- global crime control
-attempts to address the surge in international crime has led to the setting up of international agencies: such as interpol, europol. idea is to cooperate on cross border investigations. they also collect data and examine patterns of crime to suggest global strategies
how has globalisation impacted crime-globalisation supply and demand
-part of the reason for transnational crime is the economy of demand and supply. the rich west demands products, e.g. drugs, sex workers. the poor third world countries supply these services. for example, in columbia 20% of the population is dependent on the cocaine trade for their livelihood
how has globalisation impacted crime-global risk consciousness
-globalisation has brought with it an inc in insecurities surrounding the movement of people such as asylum seekers, economic migrants, etc. this led to inc border patrols to protect countries from this perceived threat. much of this is created by media ‘moral panics’ about terrorists and ‘scroungers’, ‘flooding’ the country
held et al
-suggests there has been a globalisation of crime- an interconnectedness of crime across national borders. this has led to the spread of transnational organised crime
manuel castells
-argues that there is now a global crime economy worth over £1 trillion per annum
-this takes a number of forms: arms trafficking; trafficking in nuclear materials; smuggling of illegal immigrants; trafficking of women and children; the drugs trade; cyber crime; green crime; international terrorism; money laundering
transnational organised crime
-castells argues that globalisation has created transnational networks or organised crime, which operate in many countries. these employ millions of people, and often work in collusion with corrupt state officials and legitimate businesses. farr (2005) suggests there are two main forms of global criminal networks
forms of global criminal networks
-established mafias: like the italian american mafia, the japanese yazuka, and the chinese triads, which are very long established groups, often organised around family and ethnic characteristics. these have adapted their activities and organisation to take advantage of the various new opportunities opened up by globalisation
forms of global criminal networks- newer organised crime groups
-emerged since advent of globalisation & collapse of communist regimes of russia and eastern europe in 1980-90s. these newer groups include russian, eastern european and albanian criminal groups, and colombian drug cartels, which connect with both one another and the established mafias to form part of the network of transnational organised crime
-these organisations control much of the worlds human trafficking for sex/prostitution and/or illegal immigration, money laundering, pornography, weapon and drug smuggling, as well as operating a range of legal businesses funded by the money laundered profits of their criminal activities
transnational organised crime
-castells emphasises the inc international linkages between criminal groups, with once regional and local criminal groupings in individual countries becoming deterritorialsed and globalised
-glenny (2009) uses term ‘McMafia’ to describe way transnational organised crime mirrors activities of legal transnational corporations like McDonalds, who seek to provide & sell same products across world. they are operating as purely self interested economic organisations which instead of fast food, provide drugs, sex, guns, body organs, pornography and opportunities for illegal immigration
glocalisation
-hobbs and dunnigham-global criminal networks work within local contexts as interdependent local units
-e.g. international drugs trade & human trafficking require local networks of drug dealers, pimps & sex clubs to organise supply at local level, and existing local criminals need to connect to global networks to continue their activities, such as accessing drugs, counterfeit goods & illegal immigrants for cheap labour as prostitution
-hobbs (1998) coined term ‘glocal’ to describe this interconnectivity between local and global, with transnational crime really rooted in localities- local contexts with global links
disorganised capitalism
-losh and urry (1987) and taylor (1997,1999)
-globalisation accomplished due to less regulation & less state control over business & finance
-led to less job opportunities & more job insecurity as there’s inc in unemployment
-reduced state provision
growing inequality
-taylor (1997)
-winners from globalisation are rich financial investors & transnational corps based in developed western countries- growing sense of relative deprivation feeds crime
-disadvantaged in developing and developed countries are the losers
supply and demand
-demand for illegal drugs provides means of moving money by drug dealing for those deprived of other opportunities, supply met by poverty stricken farmers
-demands by affluent for body parts met by ppl from poor countries. managed by transnational organised criminal networks
-growing global inequality & poverty in developing world+rising expectations by global media=ppl pushed to emigrate to developed western countries
more opportunities
-new means of carrying out crime, through internet (dark web)
-crime committed in one country may have perpetrator in another country. may be impossible to track down & convict offenders & decide which country is responsible for prosecuting perpetrators
consumerism
-jock young left realist
-many ppl have little chance of getting affluent western lifestyle, & in a bulimic society encourages a turn to crime in many countries such as international illegal drug trade, human trafficking
-globalisation spread similar culture & ideology of consumerism across globe
growing individualism
-bauman (2000)- improvements on living conditions depends on individuals own efforts, can no longer count on safety net provided by welfare state
-taylor- individuals left alone to weigh costs & benefits of their decisions & choose course that brings them highest chance of high rewards. rewards seen in terms of ideology of consumerism
-crimes offer individuals from poor nations hope of achieving individual salvation
global risk society
-beck (1992)
-insecurity of life in late modernity
-ppl become more ‘risk conscious’ & fearful of things like losing their jobs, having identities stolen, nuclear accidents, climate change etc
-causes of these risks are located globally, hard to identify who’s responsible. media plays on fears, can fuel hate crimes
evaluation of how globalisation affected crime
+valuable & focusses on newest, most dramatic forms of crime & links to local + global contexts
+globalisation inc interconnectedness in global law enforcement, more agencies working across national borders to tackle crimes that have global dimensions
-difficult to investigate due to secret nature
-dependence on secondary data, reliable stats may not be available
-argument that crime that has direct impact on daily life is more significant than globalised crime
green criminology
-argue criminologists should study environmental harms whether or not criminal or other laws are actually broken
-traditional criminology: subject matter defined by law & no law has been broken.
-green criminology: white (2008) argues subject of green criminology is any action that harms physical environment/humans/non humans/animals even if no law is broken
primary green crime
-crimes that result directly from the destruction and degradation of the earths resources
secondary green crime
-crime that grows out of breaking the rules aimed at preventing or regulating environmental disasters
-Day (1991) says ‘as the western states are more concerned with nuclear weapons & nuclear power it threatens those who appear them as enemies of the state’
evaluation of green crime
+recognises growing importance of environmental issues & need to address the harms and risks of environmental damage, both to humans & non humans
-by focussing on the much broader concept of harms rather than simply on legally defined crimes, it’s hard to define the boundaries of its field of study clearly
-general problems of studying globalised crime that is usually committed by rich & powerful
green and wards definition of state crime
illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by or with the complicity of state agencies
why is state crime the most serious form of crime
-scale of state crime: green and ward 2012 estimated 262 million ppl were murdered by govs during 20th century
-state is source of law: states role to define what is criminal, uphold the law and prosecute offenders
powerful groups and state crime
state crime carried out by powerful people or groups who can define their activities as being legitimate
types of state crime- political crimes, censorship and corruption
-political siphoning public money off to their private bank accounts
-unfairly granting gov contracts in return for bribes
-electoral fraud
types of state crimes- political crimes, war crimes
-illegal wars- under international law, in all cases other than self-defence, war can only be declared by the UN security council
-crimes committed during war or its aftermath- whyte 2014 describes USAs neoliberal colonisation of Iraq which constitution was illegally challenged so economy could be privatised
types of state crime- crimes by security or police forces
-genocide- e.g holocaust 1939-1945, cambodia 1970s
-torture- e.g. guantanamo bay, operation demetrius in ulster ireland conducted by uk- sensory deprivation
-imprisonment w/o trial- e.g. guantanamo bay
-disappearance of dissidents- e.g. china, russia and saudi arabia
types of state crimes- economic crimes
-official violations of health and safety laws- gov knowingly allowed health & safety breaches to save money or create profit e.g. chernobyl
-economic policies which cause harm to the citizenry- policies gov knows will lead to harm e.g. austerity in uk
types of state crime- social and cultural crimes
-institutional racism- police force targeting certain groups, ethnocentric curriculum ignoring certain groups in history
-destruction of native culture and heritage- deliberate & conscious destruction of culture or heritage of native groups
domestic law
-chambliss 1989 defines state crime as acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as representatives of state
-e.g. MP expenses scandal- 2009 members of HoC and HoL misusing allowances
-definition ignores fact that states have power to make laws and do they can avoid criminalising their own actions
international law
-rothe and mullins 2008 define state crime as any action by or on behalf of a state that violates international law and or states own domestic law
+doesnt depend on sociologists own personal definitions of harm, uses globally agreed definitions of state crime
-international law is social construction involving use of power
labelling and societal reaction
-according to the labelling theory, what constitutes as crime depends on whether social audience for that act defines it as a crime
+recognise definition of state crime differs over time & between cultures & groups & this stops sociologists from imposing own definition
-unclear who’s supposed to be relevant audience that decides whether a state crime has been committed
human rights
-united nations declaration of human rights 1948
-schwendinger 1975 argues state crime should be defined as violation of ppls basic human rights by state & their agents. human rights include:
•natural rights
•civil rights
authoritarian personality
-adorno et al 1950- person who has extreme respect for authority & more likely to be obedient to those who hold power over them
-was attempt by researchers to explain why nazism gained foothold in europe. adorno and horheimer used f-scale
-theory suggests ppl cooperate in carrying out state crime because they obey those in position of authority
crimes of obedience
-state crimes are crimes of conformity, as they require obedience to higher authority-state or its representative
-kelman and hamilton 1989 studied the My Lai massacre in vietnam. identified 3 general features that produced crimes of obedience:
•authorisation- act according to orders
•routinisation- carried out as part of regular routine
-dehumanisation- ‘enemy of the state’
modernity
-zygmunt bauman 1989- its certain features of modern society that makes state crime possible:
•division of labour- one task per person, no one fully responsible
•bureaucratisation- normalising act by making it repetitive & routine
•instrumental rationality- rational efficient methods used to achieve goal regardless of goal
•science & tech- to justify means & motive
culture of denial
-cohen 1996-techniques of neutralisation used to deny/justify crimes:
•”it didn’t happen”
•“it’s not how it looks”
•”it had to be this way”
Matza and sykes neutralisation theory
1.denial of responsibility- perpetrator perceives himself as victim of unfavourable social conditions
2.denial of injury-offender plays down his actions, doesn’t recognise it as immoral
3.denial of victim-offender believe victim deserved crime committed
4.condemnation of condemners-perpetrator accuses police of being corrupt, flawed, selfish
5.appeal to higher loyalties-offender claims to have acted in interest of others
problems of researching state crime
-tombs and whyte 2003- states can use their power to prevent or hinder sociologists doing research
-greene and ward 2021- research can be difficult, harrowing & dangerous
-cohen-states will use strategies of denial or justification
why is state crime the most serious form of crime
-the scale of state crime- green and ward estimated that 262 million people were murdered by give during 20th century
-state is a source of law- states role to define what is criminal, uphold the law & prosecute offenders
powerful groups and state crime
state crime carried out by powerful people or groups who can define their activities as being legitimate
types of state crimes:political crimes
-political corruption can take various forms, most common are:
•political siphoning public monry
political crimes- war crimes
-illegal wars-under international law, declared by UN security council
-crimes committed during war or its aftermath- whyte (2014) describes USAs neoliberal colonisation of Iraq, constitution was illegally challenged so economy could be privatised
types of state crime-crimes by security or police
-genocide- holocaust 1939-1945, cambodia 1970s
-torture- Guantanamo bay, operation demetrius in ireland
-imprisonment without trial- guantanamo bay
-disappearance of dissidents- china, russia, saudi arabia
types of state crimes- economic crimes vet
-official violations of health & safety laws- gov knowingly allowed breaches to save money or create profit. chernobyl
-economic policies which cause harm to citizenry- gov knows will lead to harm upon citizens. austerity in UK
types of state crimes- social and cultural crimes
-institutional racism-police target certain groups in society , ethnocentric curriculum
-destruction of native culture and heritage- deliberate. ISIS destruction of churches and shrines in Mosul
domestic law
-chambliss- state crime as acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as representatives of the state
-e.g. 2009 members of HoC and HoL misusing allowances permitted to them
-definition ignored fact that states have power to make laws so they can avoid criminalising own actions
international law
-rothe and mullins 2008- state crime as any action by or on behalf of state that violates international law and/or states own domestic law
+doesnt depend on sociologists own definition, uses globally agreed definition
-international law is social construction involving use of power
labelling and societal reaction
-what constitutes as crime depends on whether social audience for that act defines it as crime
+recognise definition changes over time & between cultures & groups, stops sociologists imposing own definitions
-unclear who is supposed to be relevant audience that decides state crime committed
human rights
-schwendinger- state crime as violation of people’s basic human rights by state and their agents. human rights include:
•natural rights
•civil rights
authoritarian personality
-person who has extreme respect for authority & more likely to be obedient to ppl who hold power over them
-suggests people cooperate in carrying out state crime as they obey those in position of authority (state)
crimes of obedience
-kelang and hamilton 1989 studied My Lai massacre in Vietnam, identified 3 general features that produce crimes of obedience:
•authorisation- act according to orders, duty to obey
•routinisation- crime part of regular routine
•dehumanisation-‘enemy of state’, sub human
modernity
-zygmunt bauman 1989- certain features of modern society that make state crime possible:
•division of labour- each personally responsible for one task, no one fully blamed
•bureaucratisation-normalising act by making it repetitive
•instrumental rationality- rational methods used to achieve goal regardless of goal
•science & tech- to justify means and motive
culture of denial
-cohen 1996 identified spiral of denial states use:
•”it didn’t happen”- lasts until international bodies produce evidence
•”it’s not how it looks”- claiming that others carried it out or evidence points to something else
•”it had to be this way”- admit what happens but justify it
neutralisation theory
-matza and sykes- allows state to rationalise their acts:
•denial of responsibility- perpetrator sees themself as victim
-denial of injury- offender plays down actions
-denial of victim- offender believes victim deserved it
-condemnation of the condemners- perpetrator accuses police of being corrupt, flawed, selfish
-appeal to higher loyalties- offender claims to have acted in interest of others
problems of researching state crime
-tombs and whyte 2003- states can use their power to prevent sociologists doing research
-greene and ward 2021- research can be difficult, dangerous
-cohen- states will use strategies of denial or justification
