Theories, Tactics, Definitions

Question 1

Working Definition of Persuasion

Answer 1

Persuasion involves one of more persons who are engaged in the activity of creating, reinforcing, modifying, or extinguishing beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, and/or behaviors with the constraints of a given communication context (Seiter & Gass, 2007)

Question 2

Cialdini’s view

Click, Whirr

Answer 2

We need short cuts (stereo types, rules of thumbs)

Tape recorder metaphor
Click: the appropriate tape is activated
Whirr: rolls out the appropriate set of behavior

Question 3

Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)

Answer 3

Is a dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed.
The model examines how an argument’s position on the “elaboration continuum”, from processing and evaluating (high elaboration) to peripheral issues such as source expertise or attractiveness (low elaboration), shapes its persuasiveness.

2 routes to persuasion:
• Central
• Peripheral (peripheral cues)

Which route we take depends on motivation and ability.

Question 4

Fixed-action pattern

Answer 4

Intricate sequence of behavior that occur in the same fashion over and over (automatic behavior)
Sometimes this is beneficial for survival

Question 5

Trigger Feature

Answer 5

A specific feature of something that is the cause for activating the activates the fixed-action pattern or Click, Whirr response.
For example the colour of the feathers on a bird

Question 6

Judgmental heuristics

Answer 6

Short cuts that allow for simplified thinking that works well most of the time but leaves us open to occasional costly mistakes.

Question 7

Controlled responding

Answer 7

To react on the basis of thorough understanding of all relevant information
people will use this when They have the desire and ability to do so

Question 8

Mimics

Answer 8

Creatures who copy the trigger of another animal to trick them in to “playing their behavior tapes” at the wrong time.
For example fire flies

Question 9

Pique Technique

Answer 9

Rather than make a standard request for something, make an unusual request that leads people to wonder why you are making that particular request (and hence pay attention to you).

Making a novel request creates surprise, breaking the person out of their schema and forces them pay attention, thinking further about your request in a central processing fashion. The novelty in the request piques their interest (hence the name of the technique).

Question 10

Disrupt and reframe technique

Answer 10

Disrupt automatic processing to make them think then give information to reframe your thoughts on it.
Both components are necessary
“a package of gum sells for (3 dollars or 300 pennies), which is a bargain.

Question 11

Heuristic Systematic Model of Persuasion (Chaiken, 1980)

Aka dual process theory

Answer 11

This attempts to explain how people receive and process persuasive messages. The model states that individuals can process messages in one of two ways: heuristically or systematically. The guiding belief with this model is that individuals are more apt to minimize their use of cognitive resources thus affecting the intake and processing of messages.

Provides an account of how a phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes. Often, the two processes consist of an implicit (automatic), unconscious process and an explicit (controlled), conscious process.

Question 12

Principle of Scarcity

Answer 12

When commodities are perceived as rare or not easily attainable, their value is increased.

• Limited numbers
• Time limits

Optimizing conditions for scarcity/ commodity theory
• Newly scarce (a possible for revolutions a revolt, “freedoms, once given, will not be relinquished without a fight.”)
• Competition for resources

Question 13

Commodity Theory

Answer 13

Scarcity acts as a signal to attend to properties of item

• Attitudes become polarized

Question 14

Psychological Reactance

Answer 14

Brehm’s reactance theory
• We all want the freedom to think, feel and act as we choose
• If we think a freedom is being threatened, we try to restore it

E.g., censorship, love and romance

It emerges at 2 (toy behind Plexiglas study)

Other implications of reactance
• Very strong appeals might boomerang
• The closing time effect

Question 15

Phantom Alternatives

Answer 15

A very attractive alternative was included, but was unavailable (phantom alternative)

Question 16

The phantom trap

Answer 16

Try to obtain what cannot be reached

Question 17

Phantom fixation

Answer 17

tendency to focus attention on the scarce or unavailable resource, while overlooking the possible

Question 18

“Romeo and Juliet” effect

Answer 18

An example how parental control can boomerang.

If couples feel more external interference to being together they desire it more.

Question 19

Goal of Maintaining a

Positive Self-Concept

Answer 19

• People have a strong need to enhance their self-concepts by behaving consistently with their actions, statements, commitments, beliefs, and self-ascribed traits
• Forms the basis of much compliance research

Question 20

Self-perception theory

Answer 20

You don’t know how you feel or your opinions you look at your pervious actions

Question 21

Foot-in-the-door technique (FITD)

Answer 21

Before making the target request, begin by getting compliance with a very small request.

Question 22

Low-ball technique

Answer 22

gain compliance with request, later reveal hidden costs

e.g., car salesperson, Credit card companies

Question 23

Post decision dissidence

Answer 23

Buyer’s Remorse

Question 24

Foolish fortress

Answer 24

When we are consistent to protect ourselfs from thinking about things we don’t want to.
Ex. the meditation down payment story

Question 25

Boomerang effect

Answer 25

The unintended attitude change of a subject from a persuasion message. In other words, the individual changes his/her own attitudes in the opposite direction to the intention of the communicator in persuasive communication.
One condition in which FITD can cause a boomerang effect

If requests are made in a short period of time by the same person

Question 26

Foot-in-the-Mouth Effect

Answer 26

Before asking for a donation, ask people how they are feeling
• A form of commitment about feeling good therefor you can donate

Question 27

cognitive dissonance

Answer 27

is the excessive mental stress and discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, and/or values at the same time. This stress and discomfort may also arise within an individual who holds a belief and performs a contradictory action or reaction.

Question 28

What is compliance behaviour?

Answer 28

Definition of compliance: acquiescent response to a direct request
E.g., clicking on a “Click here!” link, saying yes to a friend who wants to borrow your notes

Request can be explicit or implicit, but target recognizes that he or she is being urged to respond a certain way

Question 29

Goal of Affiliation

Answer 29

• Humans are fundamentally motivated to create and maintain meaningful relationships with others
• Abiding by social norms helps us to achieve this goal

Question 30

Social Norms

Answer 30

• Implicit or explicit rules a group has for the behaviour of its members
• Members in good standing abide by these rules

Question 31

Reciprocity Norm

Answer 31

• A rule that obliges us to repay others for what we have received from them
• A strong and pervasive social force in all human cultures (Gouldner, 1960)
• Rooted in our evolutionary history
• It is awkward to turn down favors

Question 32

DITF tactic
Aka
Door-in-the-face technique
Aka
Rejection-then-retreat technique

Answer 32

As for a larger request, one that is sure to be rejected, followed by your target request
It backfires if the first request is too unreasonable
Why does the DITF work?
Reciprocal concessions
Perceptual contrast

Question 33

The That’s Not All tactic

Answer 33

Present a product but do not allow a response, then sweeten the deal (add in another product or lower the price)

Why does the TNA technique work?
• Evidence for reciprocal concessions explanation
o Manipulated the extent to which it appeared that the seller was personally negotiating with the participant

Question 34

Goal of Affiliation and Liking

Answer 34

• Humans are fundamentally motivated to create and maintain meaningful relationships with others
• Abiding by social norms helps us to achieve this goal
• Helping people we like helps us achieve this goal

Question 35

Halo Effect

Answer 35

When one positive characteristic of a person dominates the way that person is seen by others.

Question 36

Mere Exposure Effect

Answer 36

“Familiarity breeds liking”

Replicated for different kinds of stimuli (e.g., nonsense words, faces) and exposures (e.g., subliminal)

Question 37

Conditioning/Association

Answer 37

Classical conditioning
Example: weather man being blamed for the weather, “don’t kill the messenger”, credit card symbols can make people spend more even when credit cards where not used

Question 38

Reciprocal concessions

Answer 38

Giving in to a small request because you turned down a larger one.

Question 39

Mutual concession

Answer 39

The reciprocation rule brings about mutual concession in two ways:
Pressures the recipient of an already made concession to respond in kind
Because of the recipients obligation to reciprocate, people are freed to make the initial concession and, thereby, begin the beneficial processes of exchange

Question 40

Luncheon technique

Answer 40

Fund raising over a meal. The meal is the unconditioned stimulus, positive feelings because of the meal is the unconditioned response, a political candidate or cause is the conditioned stimulus, positive feelings to the candidate or cause is the conditioned response.

Question 41

Classical conditioning

Answer 41

Is a mode of learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that causes an organism to exhibit an automatic unconditioned response (UR) to the US.

Question 42

Perceptual contrast

Answer 42

If we see two things in sequence that are different from one another, we will tend to see the second one as more different from the first than it actually is.

Question 43

The goal of accuracy

Answer 43

We are all motivated to be accurate

Social proof is one source of information we can use to try to be accurate

Question 44

Informational vs. normative social influence

Answer 44

Distinction

Informational social influence leads to private acceptance as well as public conformity

Question 45

Werther effect

Answer 45

(based on a book where the main character commits suicide)
When a suicide is published, there is an increase in suicides
Can spread through a school, community, etc.
Often committed in a similar way
The more similar the person in the publicized suicide is to the people exposed to the information about it, the more likely the age group or demographic is to commit suicide

Question 46

Social proof

Answer 46

We view a behavior as correct in a given situation to the degree that we see others preforming it.
The greater a number of people who find any idea correct the more given individuals will perceived the idea to be correct

Question 47

Pluralistic ignorance

Answer 47

When everyone is looking to see what everyone else is doing.
Bystanders failing to react – when several potential helpers are present then the personal responsibility of each is reduced.
Greatest among strangers