Theories, Tactics, Definitions Flashcards
Working Definition of Persuasion
Persuasion involves one of more persons who are engaged in the activity of creating, reinforcing, modifying, or extinguishing beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, and/or behaviors with the constraints of a given communication context (Seiter & Gass, 2007)
Cialdini’s view
Click, Whirr
We need short cuts (stereo types, rules of thumbs)
Tape recorder metaphor
Click: the appropriate tape is activated
Whirr: rolls out the appropriate set of behavior
Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)
Is a dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed.
The model examines how an argument’s position on the “elaboration continuum”, from processing and evaluating (high elaboration) to peripheral issues such as source expertise or attractiveness (low elaboration), shapes its persuasiveness.
2 routes to persuasion:
• Central
• Peripheral (peripheral cues)
Which route we take depends on motivation and ability.
Fixed-action pattern
Intricate sequence of behavior that occur in the same fashion over and over (automatic behavior)
Sometimes this is beneficial for survival
Trigger Feature
A specific feature of something that is the cause for activating the activates the fixed-action pattern or Click, Whirr response.
For example the colour of the feathers on a bird
Judgmental heuristics
Short cuts that allow for simplified thinking that works well most of the time but leaves us open to occasional costly mistakes.
Controlled responding
To react on the basis of thorough understanding of all relevant information
people will use this when They have the desire and ability to do so
Mimics
Creatures who copy the trigger of another animal to trick them in to “playing their behavior tapes” at the wrong time.
For example fire flies
Pique Technique
Rather than make a standard request for something, make an unusual request that leads people to wonder why you are making that particular request (and hence pay attention to you).
Making a novel request creates surprise, breaking the person out of their schema and forces them pay attention, thinking further about your request in a central processing fashion. The novelty in the request piques their interest (hence the name of the technique).
Disrupt and reframe technique
Disrupt automatic processing to make them think then give information to reframe your thoughts on it.
Both components are necessary
“a package of gum sells for (3 dollars or 300 pennies), which is a bargain.
Heuristic Systematic Model of Persuasion (Chaiken, 1980)
Aka dual process theory
This attempts to explain how people receive and process persuasive messages. The model states that individuals can process messages in one of two ways: heuristically or systematically. The guiding belief with this model is that individuals are more apt to minimize their use of cognitive resources thus affecting the intake and processing of messages.
Provides an account of how a phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes. Often, the two processes consist of an implicit (automatic), unconscious process and an explicit (controlled), conscious process.
Principle of Scarcity
When commodities are perceived as rare or not easily attainable, their value is increased.
- Limited numbers
- Time limits
Optimizing conditions for scarcity/ commodity theory
• Newly scarce (a possible for revolutions a revolt, “freedoms, once given, will not be relinquished without a fight.”)
• Competition for resources
Commodity Theory
Scarcity acts as a signal to attend to properties of item
• Attitudes become polarized
Psychological Reactance
Brehm’s reactance theory
• We all want the freedom to think, feel and act as we choose
• If we think a freedom is being threatened, we try to restore it
E.g., censorship, love and romance
It emerges at 2 (toy behind Plexiglas study)
Other implications of reactance
• Very strong appeals might boomerang
• The closing time effect
Phantom Alternatives
A very attractive alternative was included, but was unavailable (phantom alternative)
The phantom trap
Try to obtain what cannot be reached
Phantom fixation
tendency to focus attention on the scarce or unavailable resource, while overlooking the possible
“Romeo and Juliet” effect
An example how parental control can boomerang.
If couples feel more external interference to being together they desire it more.
Goal of Maintaining a
Positive Self-Concept
- People have a strong need to enhance their self-concepts by behaving consistently with their actions, statements, commitments, beliefs, and self-ascribed traits
- Forms the basis of much compliance research
Self-perception theory
You don’t know how you feel or your opinions you look at your pervious actions
Foot-in-the-door technique (FITD)
Before making the target request, begin by getting compliance with a very small request.
Low-ball technique
gain compliance with request, later reveal hidden costs
e.g., car salesperson, Credit card companies
Post decision dissidence
Buyer’s Remorse
Foolish fortress
When we are consistent to protect ourselfs from thinking about things we don’t want to.
Ex. the meditation down payment story
Boomerang effect
The unintended attitude change of a subject from a persuasion message. In other words, the individual changes his/her own attitudes in the opposite direction to the intention of the communicator in persuasive communication.
One condition in which FITD can cause a boomerang effect
If requests are made in a short period of time by the same person
Foot-in-the-Mouth Effect
Before asking for a donation, ask people how they are feeling
• A form of commitment about feeling good therefor you can donate
cognitive dissonance
is the excessive mental stress and discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, and/or values at the same time. This stress and discomfort may also arise within an individual who holds a belief and performs a contradictory action or reaction.
What is compliance behaviour?
Definition of compliance: acquiescent response to a direct request
E.g., clicking on a “Click here!” link, saying yes to a friend who wants to borrow your notes
Request can be explicit or implicit, but target recognizes that he or she is being urged to respond a certain way
Goal of Affiliation
- Humans are fundamentally motivated to create and maintain meaningful relationships with others
- Abiding by social norms helps us to achieve this goal
Social Norms
- Implicit or explicit rules a group has for the behaviour of its members
- Members in good standing abide by these rules
Reciprocity Norm
- A rule that obliges us to repay others for what we have received from them
- A strong and pervasive social force in all human cultures (Gouldner, 1960)
- Rooted in our evolutionary history
- It is awkward to turn down favors
DITF tactic Aka Door-in-the-face technique Aka Rejection-then-retreat technique
As for a larger request, one that is sure to be rejected, followed by your target request
It backfires if the first request is too unreasonable
Why does the DITF work?
Reciprocal concessions
Perceptual contrast
The That’s Not All tactic
Present a product but do not allow a response, then sweeten the deal (add in another product or lower the price)
Why does the TNA technique work?
• Evidence for reciprocal concessions explanation
o Manipulated the extent to which it appeared that the seller was personally negotiating with the participant
Goal of Affiliation and Liking
- Humans are fundamentally motivated to create and maintain meaningful relationships with others
- Abiding by social norms helps us to achieve this goal
- Helping people we like helps us achieve this goal
Halo Effect
When one positive characteristic of a person dominates the way that person is seen by others.
Mere Exposure Effect
“Familiarity breeds liking”
Replicated for different kinds of stimuli (e.g., nonsense words, faces) and exposures (e.g., subliminal)
Conditioning/Association
Classical conditioning
Example: weather man being blamed for the weather, “don’t kill the messenger”, credit card symbols can make people spend more even when credit cards where not used
Reciprocal concessions
Giving in to a small request because you turned down a larger one.
Mutual concession
The reciprocation rule brings about mutual concession in two ways:
Pressures the recipient of an already made concession to respond in kind
Because of the recipients obligation to reciprocate, people are freed to make the initial concession and, thereby, begin the beneficial processes of exchange
Luncheon technique
Fund raising over a meal. The meal is the unconditioned stimulus, positive feelings because of the meal is the unconditioned response, a political candidate or cause is the conditioned stimulus, positive feelings to the candidate or cause is the conditioned response.
Classical conditioning
Is a mode of learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that causes an organism to exhibit an automatic unconditioned response (UR) to the US.
Perceptual contrast
If we see two things in sequence that are different from one another, we will tend to see the second one as more different from the first than it actually is.
The goal of accuracy
We are all motivated to be accurate
Social proof is one source of information we can use to try to be accurate
Informational vs. normative social influence
Distinction
Informational social influence leads to private acceptance as well as public conformity
Werther effect
(based on a book where the main character commits suicide)
When a suicide is published, there is an increase in suicides
Can spread through a school, community, etc.
Often committed in a similar way
The more similar the person in the publicized suicide is to the people exposed to the information about it, the more likely the age group or demographic is to commit suicide
Social proof
We view a behavior as correct in a given situation to the degree that we see others preforming it.
The greater a number of people who find any idea correct the more given individuals will perceived the idea to be correct
Pluralistic ignorance
When everyone is looking to see what everyone else is doing.
Bystanders failing to react – when several potential helpers are present then the personal responsibility of each is reduced.
Greatest among strangers
