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English Language Year 1 > Theories > Flashcards

Theories Flashcards

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1
Q

Who developed Accommodation Theory?

A

Howard Giles

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2
Q

What does Accommodation Theory suggest?

A

That we adjust our speech to accommodate to others.

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3
Q

What is a divergence in speech?

A

When your speech moves further apart

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4
Q

What is a convergence in speech?

A

When your speech moves further together

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5
Q

What does Norman Fairclough’s theory of synthetic personalisation discuss?

A

Using personal pronouns and inclusive language to address mass audiences

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6
Q

What does Norman Fairclough’s theory of informalisation discuss?

A

Using relaxed language in a social environment to make it more comfortable. He argues that language has become more formal over time, with a conversational tone.

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7
Q

What does Fairclough’s theory of unequal encounters discuss?

A

That in every conversation there is a power struggle/power asymmetry.

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8
Q

What does Trudgill and Lokoff’s Prestige theory discuss?

A

That women tend to use overt prestige and men tend to use covert prestige in their discourse.

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9
Q

What can we evaluate about the Prestige theory?

A

It is outdated - context is more important than gender.

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10
Q

What does the Cooperative Principle of Grice discuss?

A

Grice said the cooperative principle involves maxims that people follow when talking to each other in order for communication to flow smoothly.

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11
Q

What are Grice’s four maxims?

A

Quantity, quality, relevance/relation and manner.

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12
Q

What is the difference between flouting and violating Grice’s maxims?

A

To flout is to deliberately break a maxim where those concerned are aware. To violate is to break a maxim and one person not be aware of it - this could be the speaker or those involved in the discourse.

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13
Q

What is an implicature?

A

Where an implied meaning arises through flouting a maxim.

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14
Q

What does Aristotle’s Rhetoric Theory discuss?

A

He said language of rhetoric is a way of convincing others and having good communication with other people.

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15
Q

How did Aristotle say persuasion is achieved via?

A

Ethos, pathos, logos and kairos.

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16
Q

What did Goffman’s theory of ‘facework’ discuss?

A

That when we talk to others, we have the potential to save or break face.

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17
Q

What is positive face?

A

Reflects an individuals need for his or her wishes and desires to be appreciated in a social context. This is the maintenance of a positive and consistent self-image.

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18
Q

How is positive face shown?

A

Compliments, common ground and agreeing

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19
Q

What is negative face?

A

Reflects an individuals need for freedom of action, freedom from imposition, and the right to make one’s decisions (independence). The need to not be imposed upon.

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20
Q

How is negative face shown?

A

Making requests, suggestions or giving warnings

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21
Q

What happens when we break face?

A

We create a face-threatening act. This is where what is said could potentially undermine the positive or negative face of the speaker, the hearer or both.

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22
Q

What happens when we save face?

A

We create a face-saving act. This is where we meet the requirements of both positive and negative face needs of the speaker, the hearer or both.

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23
Q

What is positive politeness?

A

Where we use language to show solidarity with the addressee. Positive politeness achieves positive facework. E.g. complimenting others, agreeing with them, having common ground, avoiding conflict.

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24
Q

How is positive politeness broken?

A

Threats, insults, belittling the reader.

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25
Q

What is negative politeness?

A

When we use language to show respect to the addressee - such as hedging and apologising. E.g. requests, giving advice, suggestions, warnings.

26
Q

How is negative politeness broken?

A

If not said in a polite way or if the request is unacceptable.

27
Q

What is off the record politeness?

A

This includes indirect speech acts where an implicature arises. E.g. ‘Wow, it’s getting cold now…’

28
Q

What is bald on record politeness?

A

This is a direct way communicating. Therefore, face threatening acts usually occur if the tenor is distant. Very often, it uses imperatives. E.g. I’m cold. Close the window.

29
Q

What is opt out politeness?

A

Saying nothing. E.g. If you want to borrow your friend’s homework, but don’t want to threaten their face, you may choose not to ask at all and opt out of the request entirely.

30
Q

What does Eckert and McConnell-Ginet’s community of practice theory discusses?

A

They have said that social identities often lead to community of practices where there is a shared collaborative goal.

31
Q

Who developed Goffman’s facework ideas?

A

Brown and Levinson

32
Q

What year was the Dominance Model developed and by who?

A

It was developed in 1975 by Zimmerman and West.

33
Q

What does the Dominance Model discuss?

A

Men tend to interrupt more in discourse than women; this helps to exert power.

34
Q

What did Baker say about ‘Ms’?

A

Baker has identified that the honorific ‘Ms’ still has a long way to come before it is considered the favourable female gendered title, suggesting it has marked connotations.

35
Q

What did Baker say about ‘girl’?

A

Baker said the noun ‘girl’ is more likely to be used when compared to the noun ‘boy’ when referring to adults.

36
Q

What are the six key differences in Deborah Tannen’s Difference Model?

A
  1. Support versus Status
  2. Advice versus Understanding
  3. Information versus Feelings
  4. Orders versus Proposals
  5. Conflict versus Compromise
  6. Independence versus Intimacy
37
Q

What is Support versus Status in Deborah Tannen’s Difference Model?

A

Women use language to seek and offer support. Men see the world competitively; conversations are used to build status.

38
Q

What is Advice versus Understanding in Deborah Tannen’s Difference Model?

A

Women seek comfort and sympathy, showing understanding. Men often seek solutions to a problem and get immediate advice.

39
Q

What is Information versus Feelings in Deborah Tannen’s Difference Model?

A

Men’s conversation is message-oriented, based upon communicating information. For women, conversation is important to build and strengthen social links; this is done by expressing feelings.

40
Q

What is Orders versus Proposals in Deborah Tannen’s Difference Model?

A

Men will use direct imperatives and orders when speaking to others. Women use super-polite forms and propose options rather than enforce them.

41
Q

What is Conflict versus Compromise of Deborah Tannen’s Difference Model?

A

Men are more likely to use confrontation and cause more conflict in discourse. Women avoid conflict, seeking compromise.

42
Q

What is Independence versus Intimacy in Deborah Tannen’s Difference Model?

A

Men favour independence - it helps to establish power. Women seek intimacy - this helps to avoid superiority and further builds a network of connections.

43
Q

What does Janet Holmes say about tag questions?

A

The deficit model by Lakoff says that women use more tag questions than men; Holmes contests this and says both men and women use tag questions but women tend to use more addressee-oriented tags (particularly facilitative) and men tend to use more speaker-oriented tags (particularly epistemic modal tags).

44
Q

How does Tannen’s Difference Model reflect Janet Holmes’ theory related to tag questions?

A

The Difference Model reflects what Holmes says as she insinuates that women support others into conversation and are seen in supporting roles.

45
Q

What are the two main types of power?

A

Instrumental power and Influential power

46
Q

What two types of power fall under Instrumental power?

A

Practical power and position power

47
Q

What is practical power?

A

Power through physical actions, violence, skills, money, goods or services e.g. a shop manager over customers; a bully over victims; a bank over customers

48
Q

What are two specific types of practical power?

A
  • Corporate power -> power associated with business
  • Coercive power -> power dependent on fear, suppression of free will and/or use of punishment or threat
49
Q

What is position power?

A

Power gained through permission, often in a hierarchy; e.g. a headteacher over teachers, teachers over students

50
Q

What are two specific types of position power?

A
  • Legitimate power -> a type of power where a person has the formal right to make demands or expect obedience.
  • Referent power -> a type of power where respect is gained, e.g. celebrities
51
Q

What two types of power fall under influential power?

A

Knowledge and ideas power and personal power

52
Q

What is knowledge and ideas power?

A

Using knowledge and ideas to influence others e.g. as a lecturer

53
Q

What is a specific type of knowledge and ideas power?

A
  • Political power -> a type of knowledge and ideas power that exerts political and government issues
54
Q

What is personal power?

A

Using power to influence people through personality, nurture and a caring nature e.g. an older sister comforting a younger sister; a father over a son etc.

55
Q

What does the Bodine theory discuss?

A

Ann Bodine suggests that we are in an androcentric society (focused and centres on women) where many words and figures of speech are slanted towards the superiority of men over women.

56
Q

What are the key features of the hegemonic man?

A
  • The athletic man - having muscles, being physically fit
  • The work-oriented man - the main breadwinner
  • The competitive man - men tend to be more competitive
  • The dominant man - we still live in a patriarchal society
  • The unemotional man - men do not like to show feelings
57
Q

What are the key features of the hegemonic woman?

A
  • The aesthetic woman - concerned with beauty
  • The domesticated woman - typically always doing house work
  • The maternal woman - focused on motherhood and family
  • The submissive woman - women are weaker than men
  • The emotional woman - women tend to portray feelings more than men
58
Q

What does Dale Spender say about the English language?

A
  • 1980 - she said the English language is a man-made language
  • Language is slanted towards the superiority of men
  • Our social world is described using language which is biased against women
  • Her arguments rely on the belief that men traditionally have more power than women
  • Those who have more power, have more control over the words we use
59
Q

What does Robin Lakoff say about language?

A
  • Word choice is strongly influenced by gender - both that of the speaker and that of the referent.
  • Lakoff also described women’s language as powerless.
  • Women should use more male language ‘in order to be empowered.’
  • She believed that male language was viewed as the norm and something we should learn
  • An example: we have gendered language such as ‘beautiful’ for girls/women and ‘handsome’ for boys/men.
60
Q

What is Lakoff’s Deficit Model?

A

She has said the following are used more by women:
- Hedging
- Super-polite forms (‘would you mind?’)
- Tag questions
- Prosodic features
- Empty adjectives
- Hypocorrect grammar
- Direct quotations
- Wh-imperatives
- Weak modal verbs
- Indirect commands
- Intensifiers
She has also claimed that women apologise more, lack a sense of humour, avoid coarse language and speak less frequently.

61
Q

What did Muriel Schulz say?

A
  • 1975 - her essay ‘the semantic derogation of women’ said that the greater number of negative terms for women embodies the patriarchal order of society.
  • Female related terms often undergo semantic derogation/pejoration.
  • Example: ‘Lord’ and ‘Lady’ - Lord still reserved as a noble title, especially in British English, but any woman may call herself a ‘Lady’, even those who are referred to as a ‘cleaning lady’, let alone ‘lady of the night.’
62
Q

What did Miller and Swift say?

A
  • They were outspoken advocates for eradicating gender bias in the English language after writing a sex education handbook and finding it used male pronouns.
  • Words and Women (1976) is the landmark work that reveals the sexual biases present in our everyday speech and writing. It shows how they affect women’s and men’s perceptions of the world and one another.
  • Women are presented as ‘emotional’ and ‘irrational.’

English Language Year 1 (8 decks)

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