The thwarted rise of liberalism in Europe in the 1820s and 1830s Flashcards
syllabus
Fureix, La liberté guidant les peuples. The revolutions of 1830 overthrew sovereigns, strengthened liberal aspirations and brought about a new state BUT were followed by repression +++. Metternich saw it as the “beginning of the end” of old Europe. Very few historians have taken an interest in these events and really linked them together (difficulty of classifying everything under the banner of “revolution”). Historiography through a national prism: often used in the construction of national history BUT the constructivist thesis shows that it is for the purposes of “martyred homeland”. The 1830s saw a different idea of legitimacy, taken up by nationalist movements (other than the mysticism of the Holy Alliance).
Liberals see it as a perfect synthesis of revolution & liberal ideals BUT popular sovereignty is ultimately challenged ☹.
Marxist reading = it was the social & economic phenomena that led to the Revolution which was ultimately confiscated (justified all the same by the many broken machines).
3rd voice: opening up the public sphere = workers’ voices. Through petitions, banquets, funerals, hullabaloo = end of secrecy (of societies).
Multipolar approach = no single centre of impetus, of “contagion”. The barricade = common language; three-coloured flags, liberty trees = common symbols. Flags in national colours in French funeral processions. Mobilisation of the “liberal international”, on the spot or through demonstrations of support in the public space = “suffering at a distance” for the Polish martyrdom.
The Belgian Constitution replaced the Cadiz Constitution in the liberal ideal. BUT the liberals themselves were divided on the religious question.
1/ The political culture of the Liberal International
summary
values and doctrines
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Ideological Foundation:
- Recognition of natural rights, rule of law, and individual freedoms.
- Embrace of constitutionalism to balance powers and prevent encroachments.
- Association with moderate parliamentarism, emphasizing limited suffrage.
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Intellectual References:
- Influence of key philosophers like John Locke, Montesquieu, Benjamin Constant, and Germaine de Staël.
- Glorious British Revolution of 1688 as a crucial historical precedent.
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Polycentric Nature of European Liberalism:
- Liberalism extends beyond Franco-English influences.
- Introduction of the term “liberal” in Spanish in reference to the Constitution of Cadiz (1812).
- Recognition of the transnational nature of liberalism despite national variants.
Origins and Critique of Mercantilism:** - Critique of mercantilist economies with regulations and high customs duties.
- Advocacy for easing constraints on trade and industry for the promotion of wealth.
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Variants in Different Regions:
- Utilitarian approach in England, theorized by Jeremy Bentham.
- Liberal ideas in France during the Restoration, embodied by the “doctrinaries.”
- Presence of liberalism in the Germanic territories, despite the authoritarian nature of the Prussian monarchy.
English Model and limits
- The English “Model” and Its Limits:
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Pioneer Status of the UK:
- UK as a pioneer in European liberalism due to the revolutions of the 17th century.
- Establishment of a temperate monarchy, protection of individual freedoms, and the role of Parliament.
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Contradictions and Criticisms:
- Contradictions in the “military tax state” and a powerful, centralized political and economic organization.
- Social protests and tensions, as observed in the Luddite movement and the Peterloo massacre.
- Contestation of the political system and demands for universal suffrage.
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Pioneer Status of the UK:
- Post-Napoleonic War Challenges:
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Discrediting of the English Model:
- Criticisms of the state, political system, and economic elites post-Napoleonic wars.
- Rise of radicalism and calls for profound reform of institutions.
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Irish Question and Social Conflicts:
- Irish conflicts, religious discrimination, and the role of the Catholic Association.
- Social conflicts arising from the delimitation of private property and mechanization of industries.
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Discrediting of the English Model:
- Legacy and Influence:
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Enduring Impact:
- The lasting impact of the English “model” on European liberalism.
- Evolution of liberal ideas despite challenges and contradictions.
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Shaping Political and Economic Thought:
- Influence on political and economic thought in subsequent centuries.
- Legacy in shaping debates on the role of the state and individual responsibility in society.
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Enduring Impact:
The battles of insurrectionary liberalism
summary
Age of secret society and various conspiracies
- The Struggles of Insurrectionary Liberalism
2.1 The Age of Secret Societies
##### 2.1.1 Overview
In the turbulent period following the Congress of Vienna, liberalism transformed from a mere doctrine into a dynamic force engaged in conflicts, often involving armed struggles. Historians, notably Maurizio Isabella, have highlighted the formation of a “Liberal International” transcending national borders. This international network thrived in the cities of London, Paris, Geneva, and Brussels, bringing together freedom fighters with shared liberal ideals.
2.1.2 Secret Societies
The era between 1815 and 1830 witnessed the rise of secret societies as a response to repressive measures imposed by restored regimes. Censorship, police surveillance, and bans on associations prompted liberals, including those from privileged backgrounds, to organize covertly. These secret societies, often influenced by Masonic lodges, became hubs for political activism, providing a clandestine platform for opponents. Noteworthy among them was the Carbonari, originating in Italy during the Napoleonic period, which played a pivotal role in early 1820s uprisings.
2.1.3 The Carbonari
The Carbonari, named after the guild of coal workers, spread across Italy and later influenced France. They employed secret rituals and tests to ensure loyalty and safeguard members’ identities. The society aimed to overthrow existing powers or impose liberal reforms through insurrections. The Italian Charbonnerie, with its initiatory dimension drawing from Christian and Masonic elements, became a focal point for liberals seeking to challenge absolutist regimes. In France, the Charbonnerie grew rapidly between 1820 and 1822, boasting a diverse membership, including prominent figures like Marquis de Lafayette and influential bankers.
Revolts and insurrections in the Mediterranean world
2.1.4 Insurrections and Challenges
The Charbonnerie attempted multiple uprisings in 1822, facing challenges and internal divisions. Attempts in Belfort, Saumur, and other regions led to arrests, trials, and executions. Internal strife and the socio-political landscape contributed to the decline of Charbonnerie after 1823.
2.2 Revolts and Insurrections in the Mediterranean World
##### 2.2.1 European Context
Between 1820 and 1823, a broader European context witnessed uprisings and insurrections led by secret societies around the Mediterranean, particularly where absolute powers had been restored post-1815. This cycle of uprisings included Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and the Italian and Iberian peninsulas.
2.2.2 Spanish Uprising
The liberal movement in Spain began in 1820 when officers, led by Rafael del Riego, refused to fight South American separatists. Their rebellion led to the reinstatement of the Constitution of Cadiz, with liberal measures adopted. Similar movements occurred in Portugal, leading to the return of King John VI and the adoption of a liberal constitution.
2.2.3 Italian and Iberian Uprisings
Revolts erupted in Sicily in 1820, spreading to Naples and Piedmont-Savoie. Austrian intervention in 1821 quelled liberal uprisings. The French expedition to Spain in 1823, known as the “100,000 sons of Saint Louis,” symbolized great power interference to suppress liberal and revolutionary movements.
Transnational cause - Greek Independence
2.3 A Transnational Cause: Greek Independence
##### 2.3.1 Background
The 1820s witnessed a notable shift in the focus of liberal activists towards the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly Greece. Greece, then part of the Ottoman Empire, became a cause célèbre for liberals across Europe.
2.3.2 Philhellenism and International Support
Philhellenic movements emerged in major European cities, emphasizing support for Greek independence. Poets, artists, and diplomats played pivotal roles in popularizing the Greek cause, depicting it as a struggle between the “Christian” West and Ottoman Turkey. Philhellenic committees raised funds, sent aid, and even engaged in military support for the Greek insurgents.
2.3.3 Challenges and Diplomacy
Despite international efforts, the Greek insurrection faced challenges and internal divisions. Philhellenic mobilization influenced the positions of great powers, leading to direct involvement from 1827. The Battle of Navarino in 1827 and subsequent diplomatic efforts resulted in the recognition of Greek autonomy and later full independence in 1830.
2.3.4 Legacy and Complexities
The Philhellene mobilization had a lasting impact, changing the perception of liberal causes. However, challenges arose post-independence, including territorial disputes and tensions. Greece’s trajectory highlighted the complexities of national construction and external interventions in the quest for sovereignty.
- The Battles of Insurrectionary Liberalism
#### 3.1 Overview
Insurrectionary liberalism, marked by secret societies, uprisings, and transnational causes, shaped the political landscape in the post-Napoleonic era. The struggles revealed a dynamic and multifaceted liberal movement, challenging established powers and inspiring a sense of shared purpose across borders.
Europe in revolutions - the moment of 1830 a/ the fall of the french restoration
b/ Liberalism and national uprisings
1. Europe in Revolutions: The Prelude to 1830
- Overview of liberal insurrections in the 1820s.
- Limited success due to resistance from absolutist regimes.
- Crystallization around the “1830 moment.”
2. The Fall of the French Restoration: Prelude to July Revolution
- Opposition rise from 1827 against King Charles X.
- Failure of early actions, resurgence in protest activities.
- Conflict over the interpretation of the 1814 Charter.
3. Liberalism and National Uprisings: Prelude to Transnational Revolution
- The “July Revolution” sets the stage for broader changes.
- Appointment of reactionary ministers increases tension.
- Escalation with the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies.
4. 1830: A Transnational Revolutionary Wave
- Multiple uprisings in France, Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany.
- Divergence in the interpretation of the Charter causes uncertainty.
- Conflict intensifies with Charles X legislating by ordinances.
4.1 The “July Revolution” in France
- Opposition surge during 1827 elections.
- Barricades in Paris indicate rising protest.
- Showdown over the interpretation of the 1814 Charter.
- “Address of the 221” marks the beginning of parliamentary protest.
4.2 1830 in the Pyrenees: The War of the Ladies
- Social movement in the Ariège Pyrenees protests the Forest Code.
- Actions against forest management laws disrupt communities.
- The connection between the Three Glorious and the War of the Ladies.
5. The July Revolution in France
- Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies in May 1830.
- Escalation with ordinances abolishing freedom of the press.
- Parisian uprising on July 27-29, 1830, leads to Charles X’s abdication.
- Establishment of the July monarchy under Louis-Philippe.
5.1 Opposition and Electoral Challenges
- Elections confirm surge in opposition.
- Conflict over the interpretation of the Charter deepens.
- The king dissolves the Chamber of Deputies in May 1830.
5.2 The Revolutionary Days of July 27-29, 1830
- Parisian workers play a decisive role.
- Charles X forced to abdicate on August 2, 1830.
- Moderate alternative proposed with the Duke of Orleans.
5.3 The Rise of the July Monarchy
- Louis-Philippe becomes the king, symbolic measures adopted.
- July monarchy preserves the monarchical framework but with reforms.
- Ambiguity in the July regime between national sovereignty and elitist closure.
6. A European Revolutionary Situation
- The July revolution sparks a transnational revolutionary cycle.
- Belgium’s case as a profound transformation after the Congress of Vienna.
- Revolts in German Confederation, riots in Saxony, and constitutional revisions in Swiss cantons.
6.1 Belgium: From Dissatisfaction to Independence
- Discontent in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
- Performance of “La Muette de Portici” triggers uprising.
- Belgium’s independence recognized by great powers in 1831.
6.2 Revolutionary Events Across Europe
- Overthrow of rulers in German Confederation.
- Radical protests in Southwest Germany in 1832.
- Revolts in Parma, Modena, and Piacenza in the Italian states.
7. Hopes, Disillusions, and Exiles
- Revolutionary situations lead to transformations and failures.
- The term “Liberal International” characterizes the collective experiences.
- Polish insurrection of 1830-1831 and its connection to the European political space.
7.1 Belgium’s Constitutional Transformation
- Adoption of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Belgium.
- Limited suffrage remains an issue despite constitutional freedoms.
7.2 Poland’s Insurrection and the Disappointment of Intervention
- Russian domination and discontent in the Kingdom of Poland.
- Polish officers rise in Warsaw, seeking external support.
- French reluctance to intervene leads to the fall of Warsaw in 1831.
7.3 Exile, Asylum, and Political Cultures
- Political emigration and the concept of the “Liberal International.”
- Reception policies for refugees in France during the 19th century.
- Paris becomes a hub for political exiles, including figures like Mazzini and Heine.
8. Conclusion: The Changing Face of Opposition Liberalism
- Liberals ally with other movements, cultivating solidarity.
- Mobilization transcends the 1830 era, integrating lessons from earlier failures.
- Opposition liberalism takes on a more conservative face when in power.
Dates
1679: Habeas Corpus
1688: Glorious Revolution
1776: Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations
1800 : Act of Union reuniting Ireland with the UK
1810: Election of the Cortes
1812 : Constitution of Cadiz
1817 : Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo
16 August 1819: Peterloo Massacre
1st January 1820 : Pronunciamento = coup d’état in Spain
August 1820: Uprising in Portugal
1820: Carbonari uprising in Naples
1821: Greek uprising begins
1822 : 4 sergeants from La Rochelle executed (against the Charbonnerie)
1822-1823: works & poems describing Ottoman massacres in Greece
1823: French repression of the uprising in Spain
1823: Creation of the Catholic Association
1825: Failure of the decabrist insurrection in Russia
1827: Navarin naval battle (England & France against Egypt)
1827: revival of the liberal opposition in France
1829 : Catholic emancipation law
1829 : Treaty of Andrinople
August 1829: Polignac ministry
February 1830: Treaty of London
1830: Address of the 221
June-July 1830: elections in France after the dissolution by Charles X
25 July 1830 : 4 ordinances of Charles X
27/28/29 July 1830: Three Glorious Years
2 August 1830: abdication of Charles X
14 August 1830 : revision of the Charter
August 1830 : Louis-Philippe, King of the French
August-September 1830: revolutionary days in Belgium
4 October 1830: Belgium becomes independent
January 1831: Insurrection in Poland
7 February 1831: Belgian Constitution
August 1831: Siege of Warsaw
1831: New electoral law
1831: Canuts revolt in Lyon
1832: Civil war in Portugal (between Pedro and his brother Miguel).
1832: Othon I, King of Greece
1833: Guizot law on education
1834: Canuts revolt in Lyon
15 April 1834: Rue Transnonain massacre
1859: Samuel Smiles = self-help
Personalities
John Locke, 18th century philosopher. Figure of English utilitarianism.
Jeremy Bentham, philosopher and jurist. Principle of “the greatest happiness for the greatest number of individuals” + rejection of royal arbitrariness in justice.
John Stuart Mill, economist and philosopher. Takes up and expands on Bentham’s work + puts Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage at its heart.
Benjamin Constant, French liberal opposed to Napoleon. Exiled, then deputy and leader of the Liberal Party. Modern freedom is based on individual liberty (privacy, assembly, expression, worship, etc.).
Germaine de Stael, French liberal opposed to Napoleon. Exiled then returned to France.
François Guizot, historian and liberal. Part of the doctrinaires (pejorative = to reconcile Revolution & monarchy). He was Minister of Education and Foreign Affairs before becoming PM under Louis-Philippe.
Metternich, architect of the “European concert”. He was Chancellor of Austria for an exceptionally long time (from 1821 to 1848) and was attached to an order based on dynastic values.
Malthus, English economist who theorised about the Malthusian trap. Too high a population prevents an improvement in the standard of living (population and standard of living converge towards a stationary state).
Ricardo, theorist in 1817, in Des principes de l’économie politique et de l’impôt, of comparative advantages (= liberal thinking towards free trade).
John Ludd, legendary militant worker and symbol of the social struggle of English workers (Luddism).
Daniel O’Connell, Catholic leader in Ireland who called for greater autonomy by organising meetings.
Lafayette, secret financial supporter of the French Charbonnerie (= French liberals).
Jacques Laffitte, liberal banker who also financed the French Charbonnerie.
Rafael del Riego, Spanish leader of the Pronunciamento, in 1820. He demanded a return to the Cadiz constitution & raised troops to impose the Const on Ferdinand VII BUT was repressed by France in 1823.
Guglielmo Pepe, an important figure in the Carbonari uprising in Naples in 1820 against Ferdinand I.
Ferdinand I, Bourbon sovereign of Naples, forced to grant a Constitution in 1820 after the Carbonari uprising.
Victor-Emmanuel I, sovereign of Piedmont-Sardinia, forced to relinquish power by the Carbonari. Restored to the throne by Austrian intervention in 1822-1823.
Alexander Ypsilantis, the first leader of Greek independence (somewhat affiliated with Russia, in truth), who organised the first uprisings in 1821 in Moldavia, Wallachia, etc.
Patriarch of Constantinople, Gregory V, Orthodox patriarch, hanged on Easter Day in 1821, in response to the Greek uprising (which he had disapproved of).
Santorre di Santarossa, a former member of the Italian Charcoal Industry, took part in the uprising of 1821. While in exile, he decided to leave for Greece in 1824 and died in battle in 1825.
Jean Capodistria, freemason, born of a Venetian family in Slovenia, ambassador to the Tsar & Foreign Affairs, governor of Greece from 1828 to 1831 & assassinated.
Othon I, Bavarian, appointed first King of Greece in 1832.
Adolphe Thiers, liberal at the time, leader of Le National, which challenged the conservative/reactionary side of Charles X’s regime.
Polignac, appointed in August 1829. Presented as a fanatical bigot, he took many unpopular measures that led to the Three Glorious Years.
William I, sovereign of the Netherlands, considered by the Walloons as defending Flemish interests. Challenged by the Young Liberals and Catholics = Belgian independence.
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, first king of Belgium (Leopold I) BUT from a German family.
Nicolas I, Russian Tsar who violently repressed the Polish uprising, then implemented a policy of purging the administration, army & universities…
Jean-Baptiste Say, Traité d’économie politique, 1803 = advocate of “laissez-faire”.
Adam Smith, economist, founding father of liberal economic thought, 1776: The Wealth of Nations
Opinions and historians
Utilitarianism - transnational movement - economic liberalism - Whigs/Tories - Luddism - Peterloo Massacre - Decabrist insurrection - secret societies - Charcoal-making - Pronunciamento - Odessa Hétairie - philhellenism - “compassion at a distance” - Help yourself and heaven will help you - Address of the 221 - Three Glorious Years - “King of the French” - Brussels Revolutionary Days - Polish insurrection
Analyses of Historians/Personalities
Nicolas Roussellier, liberalism is the “first transnational political current in modern Europe”.
Maurizio Isabella, anachronism of the “Liberal International” = same experience of exile and repression + circulation of solidarity & revolutionary ideas.
E. P. Thompson, Luddism, specialist in UK social history.
Jean-Noel Tardy, The Age of Shadows = grouping of liberal militants in secret societies +++ from which the main uprisings arose.
Hroch, nation-building = invention of national traditions by a minority of intellectuals, fermentation by the spread of nationalist demands and investment in the public arena, and, after the emergence of the nation-state, circulation of the national idea among the masses, won over by a sense of identity.
quotes
« Ce n’était pas la peine de verser autant de sang pour si peu de choses » de Potter en Belgique (souveraineté populaire niée).
« La vieille Europe est au début de la fin » + « Entre la fin et le début, il y aura le chaos », lettre de Metternich, qui analyse les évènements du moment 1830 comme le début de la fin de son système.
Summary 4
The political culture of the Liberal International
Values and doctrines
From the Spanish liberales = those who mobilised after the election of the Cortes for the constitutional monarchy
National variations: English utilitarianism (= maximising utility, individual and collective happiness = Locke, Bentham, Mill) / French liberalism (= individual freedoms dating back to the French Revolution = Constant, de Stael + “doctrinaires” against ultra-royalism) / German liberals (= students, reform of the university system = von Humboldt)
Political liberalism: transnational movement against absolutism = protection of individual freedoms, rule of law, attachment to constitutionalism. First the Cadiz Constitution (1812) then the Belgian Constitution (1831) + parliamentarianism & national sovereignty BUT not democracy (cens = vote reserved for a cultured elite for the good of all)
Economic liberalism: distrust of state intervention & regulation (not anti-state because need for police to enforce property rights) BUT not always linked to lib pol (e.g. Second Empire) & social = individual responsibility (self-help)
The English “model” and its limits
Political model: protection of fundamental rights (Habeas corpus, 1679) + parliamentarianism with power (Glorious Revolution, 1688) + opposition between Whigs (liberals)/Tories (conservatives) = economically inspired by Adam Smith & Ricardo
But limits: strong social protest (cf Luddism, machine-breaking) + electoral closure of Parliament = demand for change (Peterloo Massacre, 16 August 1819) = Six Acts, repressive + Irish & religious question (1800: Act of Union BUT Daniel O’Connell = meetings, 1823: Catholic Association & 1829: postal emancipation)
The battles of insurrectionary liberalism
The age of secret societies and conspiracies
Secret societies: freedoms not recognised = need for secrecy = secret societies (shared via newspapers) = at the root of most uprisings (decabrist insurrection)
Carbonari = Italy during the Napoleonic Wars = initiatory BUT becomes a place of politicisation (prepares uprisings against absolutism, especially Austria)
Charbonnerie in France in the 1920s: 30,000 members (liberals, Bonapartists, students, etc.) financed by the liberals (Lafayette, Laffitte) = organise insurrections supported by the military (1822: 4 sergeants from La Rochelle arrested & executed = martyrs of the Charb)
Revolts and insurrections in the Mediterranean world
In Spain: 1st January 1820 = Pronunciamento by del Riego (return to the Const of Cadiz) = uprising in Cadiz which succeeds (1822: Ferdinand VII re-establishes the Const)
1820: uprising in Naples (Guglielmo Pepe against Ferdinand I who grants a Const) + Piedmont: Victor-Emmanuel I abdicates in 1821
Repression: Austria intervenes in Italy (execution of the Carbonari) + 1822: Congress of Verona, France intervenes in Spain = 1823: French troops through the Pyrenees (arrest & execution of Del Riego)
Liberation revolt in Portugal = return of the Bragances = Pedro stays = independence of Brazil
A transnational cause: Greek independence
1821: first uprisings against the Ottoman Empire by the Odessa Hétairie (Alexander Ypsilantis in Moldavia & Wallachia which the Ottoman Empire quickly suppresses BUT new uprisings) = execution of the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople, massacres of the population Scene of the Scio massacres, Delacroix = moves international opinion
Philhellenism = “compassion from a distance” (support committees in major cities with idealisation of Ancient Greece = subscriptions, welcoming refugees) + departure of fighters (Santorre di Santarossa, Lord Byron, 1000 to 1200 volunteers from Liberal International BUT disillusionment, far from Ancient Greece)
The powers took part in the battles (1827: Navarin against Egypt = 1829: Treaty of Andrinople = 1830: Treaty of London). No precise form of state → John Capodistria (governor of Greece) assassinated = Otto I king of Greece.
The question of nationhood arises = gradual use of Greek & support of the Orthodox Church
Europe in revolutions: the moment of 1830
The fall of the French Restoration
1827: awakening of the opposition (Guizot = Help yourself and heaven will help you + Thiers = Le National) + liberals +++ in the Chamber = does the Charter establish a parliamentary regime?
Charles X refuses the parliamentary system = August 1829: Polignac ministry BUT 1830: 221 address = dissolution by Charles X = new liberal Chamber (June-July) = 25 July: 4 ordinances limiting freedom of the press = barricades (4,000) & protests by all (students in the spotlight), 27/28/29 July (Three Glorious Years) = 2 August: abdication of Charles X
Louis-Philippe thanks to Lafayette (from Bourbons to Orléans) = revision of the Charter for a parliamentary system + freedom of religion + King of the French (sovereignty to the people)
1831: electoral law lowering the vote + 1833: Guizot law on education BUT social unrest soon followed (1831 & 1834: canuts in Lyon + 15 April 1834: massacre in rue Transnonain)
Liberalism and national uprisings
Revolutions to be thought of as interactions (Fureix) = ciculations of symbols (the barricade, flags, etc.)
Belgium: William I of the Netherlands too Flemish = Liberal (de Potter)/Catholic alliance = August 1830 revolutionary days + 4 October 1830: independence + 7 February 1831: Constitution (model: fundamental freedoms & bicameralism) & Leopold I at the head of the kingdom
Poland: under Russian tutelage = January 1831: break with Tsar Nicholas I (appeal for international solidarity BUT LP refuses troops) = August 1831: siege of Warsaw, Poles crushed by the Russians & strong emotion in Europe. Nicholas purges the administration, the army & the universities.
