The Age of Revolutions Flashcards
Overview of syllabus
Syllabus
De Gouges, Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen, 1791. Addresses the Queen for her support + “Man, are you capable of being just?” + ignorance of women’s rights is the primary cause of public unhappiness + modelled on the DDHC & postamble = “Woman, wake up”.
Jourdan, La Révolution, une exception française? The French think of their Revolution as an exception & forget that others existed. Before 1789, Revolution = circular movement, Voltaire = dynamic process with profound and universal repercussions, with the US = positive connotation (and capital letter) then Rév fra = plural, without capital letter. With the Revolution comes the counter-revolution (forces working in the shadows to bring about the end of the regime).
Manuel Covo, Histoire mondiale de la France, 1791, the revolt in Saint-Domingue was based on both the monarchy and the DDHC. Supported in part by the Church + alliance between various social groups +++. In metropolitan France, the image of savagery associated with the revolt,
A)Atlantic Revolutions
Conducted in the name of freedom and sovereignty, the Atlantic revolutions loud and clear proclaim their commitment to equality. But this is understood first from the point of view of civil equality rather than political and social equality. The fertility of this political moment is precisely to have opened, to the present day, a set of questions on the universality of rights and their concrete application, beyond the many limitations that restrict them. It was not the twenty-first century that invented the debates on class, gender or race inequalities in the face of citizenship: all the revolutions of the late eighteenth century had already faced it.
1/ The Succession of the 13 English Colonies of America 1760s- 1776
Background:
- Early 1760s: UK’s height of power with domination over French Canada and the Indian subcontinent.
- 1763 victory leads to contradictions in the 13 American colonies, inhabited by Native Americans, English migrants, and African slaves.
Financial Strain and Centralization:
- Crown faces financial challenges, doubling public debt from 1754 to 1763.
- British elites push for a more authoritarian and centralized Empire.
- London Parliament imposes new taxes on colonies, sparking financial and commercial conflicts.
Resistance and Repeals:
- Settlers resist the Stamp Act (1765), protesting taxation without colonial assembly consent.
- Parliament repeals Stamp Act in 1766 due to widespread resistance.
- Townshend Acts (1767) face opposition, leading to boycotts; repealed in 1770, except for tea.
- East India Company’s duty exemption (1773) sparks protests with the slogan “No Taxation without Representation.”
Boston Tea Party and Continental Congress:
- December 1773: Boston Tea Party symbolizes rebellion against tariffs.
- Crown’s refusal to compromise leads to Massachussets’ complete tutelage.
- First Continental Congress (1774) defends settlers’ freedoms, calls for English product boycott.
Military Clashes and Secession:
- 1775: Military clashes in Lexington and Concord escalate tensions.
- Second Continental Congress (1775) raises army under George Washington.
- 1776: Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense” advocates American secession.
- Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776) asserts natural and inalienable rights, leading to the adoption of state constitutions.
2/ The Revolution of 1789- American and French Comparisons
Commonalities with American Revolution:
- Claim to universalism and attachment to human rights.
- Major political transformation in a short period.
Monarchic Involvement and Financial Crisis:
- Louis XVI’s involvement in the American Revolution accelerates France’s financial crisis.
- Failed reforms worsen financial and diplomatic capacities during the 1780s.
Origins of French Revolution:
- Multiple factors: Enlightenment influence, printed matter dissemination, debates on Church, economic issues.
- Monarchy transparency in finances reveals a degraded situation.
Estates General and National Assembly:
- May 1789: Estates General convened with unclear political outcomes.
- June 1789: Third Estate proclaims itself National Assembly, embarking on a sovereignty claim.
Events Leading to Revolution:
- Parisian involvement, Bastille capture, and “Great Fear” accelerate political changes.
- August 4, 1789: Abolition of privileges and feudal regime.
- August 26, 1789: Adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
Political Divisions and Constitutional Monarchy:
- Massive politicization in French society.
- Considerable reform projects, debates on religion, and nature of the new regime.
- Fragile constitutional monarchy compromise (1791) with division on royal veto.
International Threats and Civil War:
- June 1791: King’s attempted flight raises suspicions.
- April 1792: France enters war against Austria, leading to civil war tensions.
Debates on Causes:
- Debates on the causes of the French Revolution: Enlightenment ideas, cultural changes, and social conditions.
- Evolution of revolutionary mindset traced by scholars like Timothy Tackett.
3/ Europe in Revolutions
Global Impact of American and French Revolutions
Historical Context:
- Christopher A. Bayly highlights the worldwide repercussions of the American and French Revolutions.
- Recent historical research aims to globalize the experience of the French Revolution, considering international conditions and repercussions beyond a Parisian-centric view.
European Precedents:
- “Patriotic revolution” in the United Provinces (1783-1787) influenced by Dutch “patriots” challenging authority and inspired by the independence of the 13 English colonies.
- Belgian revolt in the Austrian Netherlands (1787) and uprisings in Switzerland during the 1780s.
- Geneva uprising (1781-1782) demanding voting rights quelled by French, Sardinian, and Bernese troops.
Impact in Europe (1790s):
- French Revolution’s impact on Europe during the 1790s, with Jacobin organizations in various countries.
- Edmund Burke critiques French Revolution’s abstract ideology in “Reflections on the Revolution in France” (1790).
- Thomas Paine supports French Revolution, responds to Burke with “Rights of Man” (1791-1792).
French Imperialism and Sister Republics (1795-1806):
- French troops’ victories under the Directory lead to the promotion of sister republics.
- Six sister republics formed, experimenting with constitutions, universal suffrage, and economic rights.
- Ambiguity exists between voluntary alliances and implied submission through the use of weapons.
- Imperialist policies annex territories including Savoie (1795), Belgium (1795), and Geneva (1798).
Global Reverberations (1800-1810):
- French Revolution’s impact extends to the Atlantic world, including the Caribbean and Central/South America (1800-1810).
- Local contexts shape revolutions with distinct characteristics.
- Second and third parts of the chapter delve into revolutionary phenomena in Spanish and Portuguese America and Santo Domingo.
B/ a new age of politics
summary
1/ The invention of citizenship
The late 18th-century revolutions were not confined to economic and social changes; they ushered in a new era of politics, redefining principles of sovereignty, representation, and citizenship. As historian Christopher A. Bayly notes, the European crisis reverberated globally, sparking a series of changes that transformed political landscapes across continents.
Rights, Constitution, and Citizenship:
Central to these revolutions was the assertion of natural and inalienable rights, echoing Enlightenment ideals. Both the American Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights emphasized the universality of human rights, aiming to ensure equality before the law and fundamental freedoms. Though these rights weren’t immediately effective, they set the stage for future mobilization, as exemplified by the struggles of the slaves in Santo Domingo and other colonial contexts.
Revolutionary movements prompted a reexamination of political legitimacy and power structures. In the United States, the constitutional debates reflected tensions between federalists and anti-federalists, highlighting concerns about the balance of power and the role of a strong federal government. The eventual ratification of the Constitution in 1788 marked the birth of the United States as a federal republic with a unique system of governance.
In France, the failure of the constitutional monarchy led to the birth of the First Republic in 1792. The Constitution of Year I (1793) promised expanded economic and social rights, reflecting a shift toward popular sovereignty. The emergence of republican regimes in regions like Haiti and South America was grounded in a novel approach to citizenship, involving increased political participation and expanding electoral procedures.
2/ Circulation of revolutionary ideas and practices ex South America
Recomposed Sovereignty: Iberian Empires in Flux
Iberian Empires and Sovereignty:
The revolutions prompted a reconsideration of sovereignty, particularly in the Iberian empires of South America. Spain and Portugal, formidable imperial powers, faced challenges due to the Napoleonic occupation of the Spanish peninsula in 1807-1808. The creation of the Cortes in Spain and resistance in Europe contrasted with the loyalty of Creole elites in the American colonies, leading to a complex situation where sovereignty returned to local communities and juntas.
Tensions arose from demographic and political imbalances between the peninsular and colonial populations. The demands for independence, championed by figures like Simón Bolívar, were rooted in issues of representation, power-sharing, and commercial freedom within the empire. The ensuing conflicts, involving British support and international contributions, led to the independence of almost all American colonies by the early 1820s.
3/ Revolutionary Violence - A Comparative Analysis
Violence in Politics:
Revolutionary episodes invariably involved the use of violence, challenging the notion of completely “peaceful” revolutions. Contrary to stereotypes, even the seemingly moderate British experienced violence during the 17th-century civil war. The French Revolution’s association with violence, from the guillotine to the Reign of Terror, has left a lasting impact on historical memory.
The centrality of violence in the French Revolution has been a subject of historical debate. The “theory of circumstances” emphasizes the impact of the military context and fear of plots on radicalization, while revisionist perspectives argue that violence was intrinsic to the revolutionary project. A broader perspective reveals that violence was not unique to France; other revolutionary movements, such as the American War of Independence and the Irish rebellion of 1798, witnessed their share of conflicts and repressions.
Jean-Clément Martin contextualizes French revolutionary violence within a deeper historical framework, highlighting the prevalence of social and institutional violence in the Ancien Régime. He argues that revolutionary recompositions necessitated the reconstruction of legitimacy, consent, and obedience, often through the use of force.
In essence, the late 18th-century revolutions transcended economic and social dimensions, shaping new political principles and practices. From the redefinition of citizenship and sovereignty to the complexities of revolutionary violence, this transformative era laid the foundation for the political landscapes of the 19th and 20th centuries.
C) Egalitarian Revolutions
summary
1/ The social limits of the Revolution
Classes and Gender in Revolution:
The Marxist critique of the French Revolution delves into the social and economic implications of the transformative period. Karl Marx argued that while the French Revolution championed “formal rights” such as liberty and equality, it failed to address the underlying economic disparities, highlighting a gap between these “formal rights” and the realization of “real rights” for the working class.
Moreover, the French Revolution, despite abolishing feudal rights, established the Civil Code of 1804, which solidified the importance of private property. This legal framework upheld property rights as foundational, contributing to the entrenchment of social hierarchies.
The tax structure of the time further accentuated these disparities. Real estate and financial assets were subject to limited taxation until the early 20th century, allowing the accumulation of wealth among the privileged few. This economic framework contradicted the revolutionary ideals of egalitarianism, revealing the endurance of class-based limitations in the wake of the revolutionary fervor.
Women’s Rights:
The involvement of women in the French Revolution was multifaceted, ranging from active participation in revolutionary activities to facing political exclusion. The concept of “family cens,” which restricted women’s political rights within the family context, persisted until the 20th century, highlighting the complex intersection of gender and citizenship.
Internationally, Mary Wollstonecraft’s seminal work, “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman,” provides a critical perspective on the exclusion of women from the political landscape during the revolutionary period. Additionally, the American Republic’s exclusionary practices, such as denying women the right to vote, contribute to a broader understanding of gender limitations in revolutionary contexts.
2/ The slave revolt - the insurrection of Saint-Domingue
Haitian Economy and Slavery:
The economic stakes in the Santo Domingo insurrection were monumental, given Haiti’s status as the most prosperous colony in the French Empire. The colony was a global leader in coffee and sugar production, and its economic success was deeply tied to the institution of slavery. A closer examination of the demographics reveals a striking distribution, with nearly 90% of the population consisting of slaves, 31,000 whites, and 28,000 free people of color.
Dynamics of the Slave Revolt:
The emergence of a specific political culture among slaves during the revolt is a crucial aspect. Forms of politicization, such as the organization of meetings and the development of cultural practices like theater, contributed to the shaping of a unique identity and resistance among the enslaved population.
Within the colonial society, divisions played a significant role in the origins and dynamics of the slave revolt. The attitudes of different groups, including whites, free people of color, and slaves, toward revolutionary events varied widely, adding complexity to the social landscape.
International factors further complicated the dynamics of the revolt. Involvement from foreign powers, particularly the UK and Spain, underscored the global nature of the Atlantic Revolutions, as the conflict in Santo Domingo became entangled with broader geopolitical considerations
Abolitionism - A Transatlantic Trend
Early Abolitionist Movement:
The British abolitionist movement, spearheaded by influential figures like Thomas Clarkson and William Wilberforce, played a pivotal role in the early stages of the abolitionist cause. The establishment of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade in London marked a coordinated effort to challenge the prevailing norms of the transatlantic slave trade.
Petitioning and grassroots campaigns were instrumental in the abolitionist movement. Abolitionists, recognizing the power of public sentiment, leveraged petitions and formed clubs to generate support for their cause. The impactful image of the Brookes, a diagram illustrating the inhumane conditions aboard slave ships, became a powerful tool in galvanizing public opinion against the slave trade.
Global Impact of Abolition:
The connections between British and American abolitionists highlight the interconnectedness of the abolitionist cause. The world anti-slavery conventions in London showcased the global nature of the movement, with delegates from various countries converging to discuss strategies and share experiences.
The legacies of the abolitionist cause extended into the 19th century. Figures like Harriet Tubman, a prominent abolitionist and conductor on the Underground Railroad, played a crucial role in the emancipation of enslaved individuals. The international efforts culminated in the abolitions of slavery in various regions, including the Dutch Empire, the United States, Brazil, and other parts of the Americas, underscoring the enduring impact of the abolitionist movement.
By incorporating these additional details, the narrative provides a more comprehensive understanding of the complexities and implications of the Atlantic Revolutions, exploring the intricate intersections of class, gender, slavery, and abolitionism during this transformative period in history.
DATES
1688: Glorious Revolution, England
1756-1763: Seven Years’ War
1765: Stamp Act, US
1767: Townshend Acts
16 December 1773 : Boston Tea Party
1775 : Battle of Lexington
1775-1781 : US War of Independence
1776 : Common Sense, Thomas Paine
4th July 1776 : US Declaration of Independence
1780 : Gordon Riots
1781 : Battle of Yorktown
1782 : Geneva Uprising
3rd September 1783 : Treaty of Paris
1787 : Philadelphia Convention + Const adopted
1787: Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade
1788: Society of Friends of Blacks
1788: US Const ratified
1788: Louis XVI announces the holding of the Estates-General
1789 : First American President
5th May 1789 : Estates-General
17 June 1789 : the deputies of the Third Estate proclaim themselves the National Assembly
9 July 1789 : The National Assembly becomes the Constituent Assembly
14 July 1789: Storming of the Bastille
End of July-beginning of August 1789: Great Fear
4 August 1789 : Abolition of privileges
26 August 1789 : DDHC
6 October 1789 : King brought back to the Tuileries (mainly by women)
1790 : Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France
1790 : Civil Constitution of the Clergy
22 May 1790 : Declaration of peace to the world
14 July 1790 : Feast of the Federation
20-21 July 1791 : Flight to Varennes
13th September 1791 : Signature of the Constitution
1791 : suppression of intermediate bodies (Le Chapelier law)
1792 : Declaration of war against Austria and Prussia
1792 : arrest of Louis XVI and his family
20 September 1792 : Victory at Valmy
21 September 1792 : First Republic
21 January 1793 : Louis XVI guillotined
March 1793 : War in the Vendée (the Chouans)
1793-1794 : Terror
8th June 1794 : Feast of the Supreme Being
1794 : Decree confirming the abolition of slavery in Saint-Domingue
1795-1799 : Directory
1802: Napoleon re-establishes slavery
1804: Haiti becomes independent
1808: abdication of Ferdinand VII (Spain)
1810 : Election of the Cortes
1812: Constitution of Cadiz
1813: Caracas taken
1816 : Bolivar abolishes slavery
1819 : Greater Colombia becomes independent
1821 : Bolivar president of Gran Colombia
1822 : Independence of Brazil = empire
1831 : Nat Turner’s revolt in Virginia
1833 : Abolition of slavery in the British Empire
1860 : Election of Abraham Lincoln
Personalities
Thomas Paine, author of Common Sense, 1776 = against British domination (many reasons)
Thomas Jefferson, 3rd President of the United States, drafter of the Declaration of Independence, supporter of federated states
George Washington, 1st President of the United States, from a family of large landowners + supporter of strong federal power
Alexander Hamilton, Founding Father, supporter of strong federal government
Lafayette, French marquis who sought the help of King Louis XVI to help the US in their war of independence + supporter of a liberal constitutional monarchy during the Revolution
Burke, English author of Réflexions sur la révolution en France, 1790 = opponent of the French Revolution
Ferdinand VII, King of Spain, abdicated in 1808 and reinstated in 1814
Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother, appointed to Spain in 1808 and forced to flee in 1813 (perceived as an illegitimate king +++)
Francisco de Miranda, “international” revolutionary who took part in the US War of Independence, the Spanish Revolution and the independence of South America
Simon Bolivar, Pan-American revolutionary from a wealthy Venezuelan family. Nicknamed “El Libertador”, he took part in uprisings in the major cities of South America (Caracas, Bogotá, Santiago, etc.) and became President of Grande-Colombia, BUT failed because of his authoritarianism.
Pedro I, son of the Portuguese sovereign who fled to Rio in 1808, declared himself Emperor of Brazil in 1822.
Olympe de Gouges, pioneer of feminism who wanted to obtain more rights for women through the Revolution (DDFC)
Toussaint Louverture, leader of the insurgents in Saint-Domingue from 1802, a freed former slave = proclaimed the independence of Haiti
Olaudah Equiano, freed slave and supporter of abolitionism in the UK
Nat Turner, leader of a slave revolt in Virginia in 1831
Harriet Tubman, organiser of a network to escape slavery, The Underground Railroad
Abraham Lincoln, elected President of the United States in 1860, advocated the abolition of slavery
