THE MAKING OF NATION-STATES GERMAN ITALY AND JAPAN Flashcards
Syllabus
Bayly, The birth of the modern world: the emergence of nationalities is not just an exported European phenomenon. Several theories on nationalities (none is sufficient, but they can be useful in understanding the whole picture).
1) Nations arise from ancient linguistic communities etc. = Mazzini, Garibaldi. Widely questioned BUT still a long sense of belonging in France, England + Japan (A. D Smith: continuity between “ethnic groups” and modern nations).
2) Construction: Gellner says it’s linked to urbanisation and industrialisation (valid for Central Europe +++) BUT Hobsbawm (+ Breuilly) = it’s the State that precedes the nation, thanks to education policies, the definition of citizenship…
3) Anderson: nations are “imagined communities” which are born and engraved by print and distribution (= print capitalism).
Need to combine the 3 for a good approach & not underestimate the importance of armed conflict.
Thiesse, La création des identités nationales: nothing more international than the formation of national identities + “The true birth of a nation is the moment when a handful of individuals declare that it exists and set out to prove it”. The heritage of each nation had to be determined and its cult disseminated. The same processes are used (history, heroes, language, monuments, folklore, official representations = anthem, flag…). The nation then only existed through popular support: the importance of education. No specific regime (the monarch can be the embodiment of the nation). With its historical roots, the nation becomes an immutable reference point in the face of modernity: the current challenge of integrating migrants.
nations in arms
summary
nationalist struggle
- War and State Formation during the years 1850-1860
The emergence of the national phenomenon in the 19th century involved a complex interplay of cultural, political, and historical factors. The development of European nations during this period can be viewed as a “nation-building experimentation workshop,” transcending immediate national boundaries. The chapter explores different perspectives on the origins of nationalism, including views from scholars such as Ernest Gellner, Eric Hobsbawm, John Breuilly, and Benedict Anderson. It emphasizes the pivotal role of the 1860-1870 decade in the global history of the national phenomenon.
1.1 The Nation’s Activists
The political project of national demands is rooted in historical, cultural, and linguistic foundations. The chapter delves into the Italian Risorgimento movement and the German national movement, exploring the cultural expressions of national identity through literature, arts, and language. It introduces key figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini and Johann Gottlieb Fichte and discusses the diverse political projects within the national movements.
wars of independence
1.2 Independence through War
The failure of the 1848 uprisings highlighted the need for more than cultural and political mobilizations to achieve national unification. The narrative explores the shift towards a more state and military-oriented approach during the 1850s, exemplified by figures like Count Cavour in Italy and Chancellor Bismarck in Germany. The importance of war and confrontation in the processes of national unification is underscored.
1.3 The Formation of Unitary States
The formation of unitary states in Italy and Germany in the aftermath of wars is discussed. It highlights the expansion of state powers, the role of key leaders like Victor Emmanuel II and Bismarck, and the challenges associated with creating constitutional monarchies. The chapter explores the limited suffrage in Italy and the federal structure of the German Empire.
The “Nationalist Struggle”
- Women and the Risorgimento
While the nationalist struggle is often portrayed as a male endeavor, this section focuses on the central role of women in the Italian Risorgimento. It challenges the notion of a purely male-driven national regeneration and highlights the diverse forms of female involvement, including nursing, political activism, and intellectual contributions. The discourse on the role of women in the Risorgimento is explored, acknowledging both conservative and progressive perspectives.
Wars of Independence
- The Italian Wars of Independence
This section details the three “wars of independence” in Italy, distinguishing key events and actors. It covers the 1848 war, Cavour’s diplomatic efforts, and Garibaldi’s famous “Expedition of the Thousand” in 1860. The geopolitical changes and territorial adjustments, including the annexation of regions and the Roman question, are explored in the context of Italy’s unification. - Unification by Arms: The Case of Germany
The narrative shifts to the German experience, emphasizing the centrality of war in the 1860s. It discusses Prussia’s role in initiating wars for unification, alliances with Italy, and the sequence of conflicts that led to the dissolution of the German Confederation. The formation of the German Empire in 1871 is highlighted, along with the tensions between national statehood and local particularities.
states born from war
- The Culture of War and the Memory of Wars
This section explores the enduring impact of military conflicts on national constructions in Italy and Germany. It discusses the prevalence of a male martial culture, the societal effects of military organizations and veterans’ associations, and the role of the army in shaping the identity of young nations. The long-term consequences of the military focus on social relations are considered. - The Formation of Unitary States (Continued)
The concluding section reflects on the challenges and complexities of the post-independence era in Italy and Germany. It addresses questions related to internal conflicts, the relationship between the dominant kingdom and diverse territories, and the ongoing effort to homogenize and produce a cohesive national community.
The nationalisation of the masses
1.1 Cultural Foundations and National Populations
The nationalization policies implemented in Italy and Germany during the 19th century aimed at creating a cohesive national identity beyond mere cultural foundations. The regimes recognized that forging “Italian” or “German” populations required more than shared cultural elements, emphasizing both external power and internal cohesion.
governing and unifying territories
The emergence of a new form of power during the 1860s in Europe marked the birth of modern Italy and Germany. This Leviathan 2.0 distinguished itself by enhanced resource mobilization and territorialization of social bonds. Government techniques, including mapping and infrastructure development, played crucial roles in unifying territories, creating economic and social coherence.
school culture and nation
The emergence of a new form of power during the 1860s in Europe marked the birth of modern Italy and Germany. This Leviathan 2.0 distinguished itself by enhanced resource mobilization and territorialization of social bonds. Government techniques, including mapping and infrastructure development, played crucial roles in unifying territories, creating economic and social coherence.
symbolic politics of the nation
1.4 Symbolic Politics of the Nation
Promotion of national identity involved cultural and symbolic policies. Monarchs and political leaders, such as Victor Emmanuel II in Italy and Kaiser William I in Germany, served as unifying figures. National holidays, flags, anthems, and allegorical figures played vital roles in creating rituals of belonging. Monumental policies, including the construction of iconic structures, symbolized the celebration of the nation.
- The Nationalization of Companies
#### 2.1 Economic Space and Standardization
The unification of economic practices involved building a national economic space with common standards. In Germany, the creation of the Deutscher Zollverein in 1834 and the adoption of the mark as the national currency in 1871 contributed to economic cohesion. Italy faced debates over banking systems, and despite challenges, both countries pursued initiatives to strengthen national territories through economic measures.
2.2 Administrative Unification and Social Resistance
Administrative unification in Italy, reflected in the Administrative Unification Act of 1865, aimed at establishing a uniform administrative framework. However, social resistance, as seen in the “great robbery” of the 1860s, highlighted challenges in maintaining order and applying new authorities’ power, particularly in the southern regions.
2.3 The Lived Space of the Nation
The nationalization of societies utilized economic, social, institutional, and cultural policies. A key focus was on the dissemination of a common language, the invention of collective history, and the establishment of shared rules and norms. The lived space of the nation, characterized by the acceleration and intensification of nationalization processes, marked a distinct phenomenon in the second half of the 19th century.
- Alpine Landscapes and Swiss National Identity
#### 3.1 Construction of Swiss Identity
The construction of Swiss national identity in the 19th century involved emphasizing natural landscapes as essential attributes. Unlike a “nationalization of nature,” Switzerland experienced a “naturalization of the nation,” portraying natural elements as forces shaping the nation. The Alpine massif played a crucial role in overcoming regional divisions, emphasizing a common Swiss identity.
3.2 Challenges in Swiss Nation-Building
Building a Swiss nation-state faced challenges due to historical divisions among cantons, religious conflicts, and linguistic differences. Efforts to show that divisions were surmountable led to the promotion of the Alpine environment as a unifying factor. The notion of “homo alpinus” emerged, associating the Swiss soul with the mountain environment, contributing to the idea of a natural Swiss nation.
- Cheetah, Sicily, and Risorgimento
#### 4.1 Cinematic Representation of Italian Unification
The film “Le Guépard” depicted the historical events of 1860 in Italy, showcasing the perspective of Don Fabrizio, a Sicilian prince. The character Tancrède Falconeri’s decision to join Garibaldi’s troops reflected the complexities of Italian unification. The film highlighted the tension between regional identities, skepticism towards the Risorgimento, and the persistence of social structures amid political changes.
4.2 Continuities and Changes
The character Tancrède’s belief that “Everything must change so that nothing changes” symbolized the continuity of social structures despite political revolutions. The film encouraged reflection on the slow temporality of social changes and their connection to the pre-revolutionary period, aligning with the idea of the “persistence of the Ancien Régime.”
nation state outside europe - the case of Japan
The provided text discusses the transformation of Japan during the Meiji era (1868-1912) in response to external pressures and influences, emphasizing the nation’s conscious effort to modernize and strengthen its position in the face of Western imperialism. The information can be divided into four main sections:
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Open up to resist: the Meiji Restoration
- Overview of Japan’s situation under the Tokugawa shôgunat and its “closed” policy.
- Impact of European and American imperialism on Japan, exemplified by Commodore Matthew Perry’s arrival and the Treaty of Kanagawa.
- The Meiji Restoration (1868): a “conservative revolution” driven by reforming elites to modernize Japan’s administrative, social, and economic structures.
- Abolition of feudalism, administrative centralization, and the creation of a national taxation system.
- The Iwakura Mission (1871-1873) and Japan’s efforts to renegotiate unequal treaties.
movement for political reform
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A movement for intellectual and political reform
- Opening of public space and the development of “public opinion” during the Meiji era.
- Fukuzawa Yukichi’s advocacy for education, public debate, and the translation of European Enlightenment and liberal works.
- Emergence of a liberal current in Japanese society during the 1870s-1880s.
- Formation of political movements, such as the Movement for Freedom and People’s Rights, advocating constitutional reforms.
- The constitutional debate and Japan’s adoption of a constitution in 1889.
an imperial nation
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Forging an imperial nation
- Central role of Emperor Meiji in promoting the national idea and unifying Japan.
- Imperial tours, symbolic acts, and the nationalization of the emperor’s figure.
- Simultaneity of the processes of nationalization and imperialization, leading to Japan’s expansion and annexation of territories.
- The annexation of Hokkaido, Ryûkyû islands, and Formosa, and the significance of the victory against Russia in 1904-1905.
- “Japanization” program to assimilate diverse populations and manage ethnic, linguistic, and cultural diversity.
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An imperial nation
- Transformation of social, economic, and cultural practices to serve the state and national greatness.
- Japan’s unique trajectory in modernization without depending on foreign capital.
- Mobilization of society through savings banks, the promotion of individual moral reform, and the integration of national culture.
- Impressive results in literacy rates and societal changes as Japan moves towards national independence and imperial policies.
dates
1512: Holy Roman Empire
1807-1808: Fichte’s Address to the German Nation
1810-1840: Romantic painting
1813: Five songs for German soldiers, Arndt
1831: Young Italy (Mazzini)
1834: Zollverein
1842: Kolner Dom & Walhalla
1842: Nabucco & The Betrothed (Manzoni)
1848: Lo Statuto = Constitution
1848-49: Italian defeats at Custoza & Novara
1849: Victor Emmanuel replaces Charles Albert
1852: Cavour President of the Council
1853: arrival of American ships to force Japan to open up to trade
1854: Treaty of Kanagawa
1859: Casati law + 1877: Coppino law (= compulsory education)
1859: war with the Austro-Hungarian Empire
4 June 1859: Magenta
24 June 1859: Solferino
11 May 1860 - 26 October 1860: March of the Thousand led by Garibaldi
1860-1870: affirmation of the nation states
17 March 1861: proclamation of the unitary Italian kingdom
1861: first Italian census
1861-1865: US Civil War
1860 - 1862: King and Parliament debate military spending = dissolution of Parliament = failure
22 September 1862: Bismarck President of the Council
30 September 1862: firmness & Realpolitik = by iron and blood
1863: support for the Tsar in Poland
1864: War of the Danish Duchies (Schleswig-Holstein)
1866: Austro-Prussian War
1866: Italy recaptures the Veneto region
3rd July 1866: Battle of Sadowa
23rd August 1866: The German Confederation disappears.
1867: Mutsuhito in power + end of the Tokugawa shogunate
23 October 1868: start of the Meiji era
1870: abolition of the feudal system in Japan
1870: Pro-Austrian electoral victory
1870-1871: Franco-Prussian war
2 September 1870: French defeat at Sedan
4 September 1870 : Proclamation of the French Republic (Third Republic)
20 September 1870 : Annexation of Rome
18 January 1871: German Reich proclaimed
3rd February 1871 : Rome becomes capital of Italy
1871: Paragraph of the pulpit = clerics cannot hold political office
1871: Mark becomes the single currency
1871-1879: Kulturkampf
1872: anti-Jesuit law = no Catholic education in All
1873: military reorganisation of Japan
1874: Non expedit, the Pope asks Catholics not to go to the polls (Italy)
1874: civil marriage is the reference marriage
1876: German becomes the official language
1878: appeasement with the election of Leo XIII
1878: funeral of Victor Emmanuel II
1980s: creation +++ of political parties in Japan
1881: Zentrum wins ¼ of the vote
1882: Italy in the Three Emperors Agreement
1883: The Adventures of Pinocchio
1883-1884: Health insurance law
1886-1887: Peace laws
1887: Polish banned (in schools?)
1889: Old age and invalidity
1889: because of my origins, I am not a coloniser
1889: granting of a Constitution
1890: imperial rescript on education, making it a major objective
1890: creation of a National Assembly
1895: Sino-Japanese war
1905: Russo-Japanese war
1910: annexation of Korea
1911: Vittoriano = Altare della Patria
personalities
Bismarck, Chancellor of Prussia and then of Germany (1862-1887) = asserted Germany against Austria, unified it, isolated France (enemy +++) and turned the All into an economy +++
Fichte, philosopher from the beginning of the century = Speech to the German nation
Grimm brothers, collection of fairytales to establish a national folklore (to establish an imaginary world, beliefs, etc.)
Arndt, poet = Five songs for German soldiers, 1813
Manzoni, writer = The Betrothed, 1842 = first unified novel in Italian
Caspar David Friedrich, painter = German Romanticism (particular sensitivity towards nature)
Giuseppe Mazzini, former member of the Charcoal Institute, who founded Young Italy (1831) and then Young Europe (1834)
Abbot Vincenzo Gioberti, neo-Geolfism: wanted to develop Italy around the Pope.
Cesare Balbo, in favour of a confederation of states around Piedmont-Sardinia (moderate nation), without necessarily the Pope at the centre = liberal
Cavour, in power in 1852 = implemented reforms in Piedmont-Sardinia = major player
Napoleon III, elected President in 1848 + coup d’état in 1851, at the head of the Empire in 1852 = rather liberal, favourable to nationalities (military aid to Italy)
Otto von Bismarck, from a Junker family + his mother’s family was close to the government. Became a member of the Pomeranian Diet in 1845 = very conservative. After 1849, became Prussia’s ambassador to the Diet (to subtly counter Austria). 1860-62: debate in Parliament on military spending = 22 September 1862: President of the Council. Firmness & Realpolitik. Implements Prussia’s strategy of assertion (affair of the duchies, Austro-Prussian war, war against France) + Iron Chancellor (Kulturkampf + anti-socialist laws).
Wilhelm I, King of Prussia from 1861 to 1888 + German Emperor from 1871.
Friedrich List, German economist and advocate of “educational protectionism” (= protecting industry in the medium term for integration after free trade, once industries are competitive).
Garibaldi, charismatic leader, led the March of the Thousand (May-October 1860) + involved in many nationalist uprisings before + fought in many countries (particularly in South America = “Hero of the Two Worlds”) = “Father of the Fatherland”.
Victor-Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont-Sardinia from 1849 = took the lead in Italian unity, which was achieved around the PS = icon (Viva VERDI) +++ funeral (1878) and monument (1911)
Mutsuhito, emperor of the Meiji era, came to power in 1867 and set about modernising the country
Fukuzawa Yukichi, promotes public debate and education (THROUGH DEBATE CLUBS?)
Itagaki Taisuke, movement for the freedoms and rights of the people → researched constitutionalism
Hermann Roesler, German jurist who came to Japan = Western influence
Samuel Smiles, self-help = liberalism, learning to cope alone
notions
Nationalist struggle - national sentiment - Burschenschaften - Italian wars of independence - strengthening of Prussia - “by iron and blood” - - Kaiser Reich - Italian united kingdom - “by iron and blood” - “by iron and blood” - “by iron and blood” - “by iron and blood” - “by iron and blood”. Kaiser Reich - Italian unitary kingdom - Lo Statuto - VIVA VERDI - conscription - Zollverein - MezzoGiorno - Kulturkampf - Zentrum - Realpolitik - Germania - Walhala - duchy affair - Tokugawa shogunate - Treaty of Kanagawa - Meiji era - self-help - Sino-Japanese war - “Greater Japan” empire
B. Anderson, the nation is an imagined community linking people who do not know each other = importance of developing feelings of identification at a distance (school, print, etc.)
E. Gellner, industrialisation/modernisation = root of the development of national identities (particularly in urban centres).
Hobsbawm, Breuilly, Noiriel, nations are strengthened when nation-states are born & allow the nationalisation of the masses (common political space).
Charles Maier, from the 1860s onwards, we have a territorialisation of power (power extends its hold over the territories (= better to exploit them economically & manage the population).
