France, an imperial nation-state Flashcards
Syllabus
Hazareeshingh, today, laicité is considered to be one of the essential values of the Republic (closing the door to a multicultural republicanism). After 1870, the Republicans established an “official version” of the Republic with a teleology (always in the singular) in which historians subsequently participated: Serge Bernstein’s republican “model”. Liberal historians such as Rosanvallon and Furet have shown that the birth of the Republic was not due to the desire +++ for a Republic but because it was the regime that “divided the French the least” = an alliance of circumstances between liberals and leftists. Bonapartism (Second Empire) is the only one that has not been “rehabilitated” by historians (“blockage” on the coup d’état). In La République en quête de citoyens (The Republic in search of citizens), Chloé Gaboriaux shows that there was a Bonapartist doctrine = support for the peasants but with the idea that they were independent of the nobility etc… Also shows that there were Bonapartist inspirations in the idea of republican citizenship = putting an end to the clichés of the radical opposition of the 2. It was the Republicans themselves who insisted on this idea of a break with the past: to make people forget their past. It is often written that republicans are imbued with positivism (Littré, Ferry…) but they themselves seem to have ambiguous conceptions of positivism + other examples of intellectuals who are anything but positivist and who draw inspiration from other currents of thought, particularly in Europe. Disagreement on the idea of fraternity, still no agreement on universal suffrage (Ferry for it, Vacherot wonders whether it should be suspended), debate on “necessary freedoms”. Dupont-White was an unclassifiable figure: a convinced republican BUT a defender of the order established by the Second Empire. Inspiration for the organisation of republican festivals, small country/grande patrie, etc. Republicans were sometimes chosen to be mayors (even though they were opposed to the coup d’état of 2 December). In short, the empire provided a framework for republicans to think. There was also the idea of “strong men”. In CCL, the republic was a Jacobin/Liberal/Bonapartist synthesis.
Saada, the fate of the natives is revealing of the state of mind of the Republic (justifying exclusion while still offering ways out for the most deserving). The fate of the Blacks reveals a fracture in republican ideas (abolition of slavery generally rather pragmatic). Victor Schoelcher = no “distinction in the human family” BUT indigenous people do not have the same access to citizenship (paradoxically “less educated” than slaves). Distinction increasingly drawn between “citizen” and “subject”. Second Empire rather liberal in terms of access to citizenship. Non-access to citizenship is justified by religion (they have a supreme legal standard that prevents them from accepting the Civil Code). Reversal of the revolutionary idea of equality for all. Duality between “private” citizenship = indigenous and the possibility of a right of citizenship (end of the problem in 1946). Code de l’Indigénat = repressive +++. End of the “mystical unity of human beings” in favour of a hierarchy. Possibility of citizenship for the most deserving BUT need to give up personal status = few applicants + draconian conditions.
the second empire is an empire
The Second Empire, led by Napoleon III, was more than just a form of government with an emperor at its helm; it was a comprehensive project involving both internal governance and global expansion. The regime’s nature is described through terms like “democratic Caesarism” and “illiberal democracy,” reflecting its dual character: an authoritarian policy combined with a call for popular legitimacy. The emperor’s rule included the proscription of opponents, police surveillance, and administrative control. Despite its authoritarian aspects, the regime maintained popularity, especially in rural areas, and underwent a phase of “liberalization” during the 1860s, marked by concessions such as expanded parliamentary rights and increased freedoms.
democratic caesarism
The regime established by Napoleon III after the coup d’état of December 2, 1851, is characterized as “democratic Caesarism.” This term encapsulates the authoritarian features of the regime, including the concentration of power in the hands of the Head of State, restricted opposition, and controlled electoral processes. The regime relied on popular legitimacy through plebiscites and the restoration of universal male suffrage. Over time, a gradual liberalization occurred, marked by concessions to parliamentary bodies, increased political freedoms, and relaxation of controls.
economic and social unification of the metropolitan territory
The Second Empire witnessed significant economic modernization and growth from the 1850s to the 1870s. Despite its political authoritarianism, the regime actively engaged private actors in economic development, infrastructure, and finance. This period saw a massive expansion of the railway network, the development of financial institutions, and the transformation of Paris under Baron Haussmann. Economic policies included free trade treaties, such as the one with the United Kingdom in 1860, leading to protests from protectionist circles. The economic prosperity of the era contributed to the regime’s legitimacy.
Imperial expansion hopes and failures
Napoleon III’s regime, while declaring “The Empire is peace,” was marked by a policy of territorial expansion, both formal and informal. Military interventions occurred in various parts of the world, including the Crimean War, the second opium war in China, and the Italian war. The Mediterranean region was a focal point, with the drilling of the Suez Canal and French influence in Algeria. The regime also pursued formal colonization in West Africa and Southeast Asia. However, the Mexican expedition marked a significant failure, as efforts to establish a Latin Empire led by Archduke Maximilian in Mexico collapsed. Simultaneously, the regime faced challenges in Europe, contributing to its ultimate downfall during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.
from the empire to the republic
The republican historiography of the late 19th century emphasizes the radical opposition between the Empire and the Republic. This vision, born out of detestation for the Second Empire, deserves reconsideration. To understand the sustainable implementation of the republican regime, one must explore both ruptures and continuities connecting it to the Second Empire.
difficult genesis if the republican regime
1.2 Difficult Genesis of the Republican Regime
The period following the emperor’s abdication in September 1870 was marked by indeterminacy. Conflicts of legitimacy arose, leading to the formation of the National Defence government. Despite the conservative dominance in the elections of February 1871, Parisian insurrection in March 1871 resulted in the establishment of the Paris Commune. The ensuing conflict, known as the Bloody Week, saw the resistance of the communards against the Versailles government.
1.3 Transition and Challenges
The aftermath of the Paris Commune did not strengthen the Republic, as the threat of monarchical restoration loomed. The period known as the “moral Order” saw challenges from various factions, including monarchists. The adoption of constitutional laws in 1875 paved the way for the perpetuation of the Republic. Episodes like the crisis of May 16, 1877, and the election of Jules Grévy in 1879 played crucial roles in confirming the republican and parliamentary nature of the institutions.
- The Painful Genesis of the Republican Regime
2.1 Challenges and Compromises
The challenges faced during the genesis of the republican regime included conflicts of legitimacy, the Paris Commune, and the struggle against monarchical restoration. Compromises, such as the institutional compromise of 1879, were necessary to solidify the republican nature of the institutions.
2.2 Anchoring the Republic
The adoption of republican institutions did not guarantee the permanent anchoring of the Republic. Efforts were made to rally support in rural areas, traditionally conservative. Policies included agricultural protectionism and the “republicanization” of society through military reforms and educational initiatives.
2.3 Symbolic Policies
Despite being reactive to excessive personalization of power, the Third Republic deployed an ambitious symbolic policy. Marianne’s allegory, national symbols, and celebrations played a vital role in promoting the Republic. The school and military reforms were key institutions in the long-term anchoring of the Republic.
pillars of the republican model
3.1 Rallies and Reforms
The Republicans targeted rural environments to ensure the sustainable implementation of the republican regime. Efforts included reassuring rural voters, material support, and policy choices. Institutions like the military and schools played pivotal roles in the “republicanization” of society.
3.2 School Reforms
The Ferry laws of 1881-1882 transformed primary education, making it free, secular, and compulsory. These reforms aimed not only to increase the level of education but also to acculturate schoolchildren to the idea of a French nation and associate it with the republican regime. The school reforms were not solely aimed at standardization but also considered the attachment to local identities.
a republic established but divided
4.1 Success and Criticisms
Despite facing intense opposition and criticism, the Third Republic endured. The “opportunistic” Republicans adopted liberal laws, fostering autonomous civil society organizations. The regime’s success lay in letting oppositions express themselves while navigating serious political crises.
4.2 Challenges and Stability
The period from 1880-1890 witnessed political-financial scandals and crises, including the Dreyfus case. The integration of Catholics and socialists into the Republic consolidated the institutions. The electoral base of the “middle classes,” countryside, and small owners provided stability despite postponed reforms.
imperial france
summary
algerian laboratory
imperial France experienced continuity in its colonial policy from the Second Empire to the Republic. The formation of a vast colonial empire characterized France as an “imperial nation-state” from the 1850s to the mid-19th century. The Algerian laboratory played a crucial role in shaping French imperialism. Between the ages of French imperialism in the modern era and the late 19th century, the policy evolved from the territories of the first colonial empire to a strategy involving informal imperialism and territorial conquest through military means. The conquest of Algeria, spanning the 19th century, marked a significant example of this evolution. The military operations, beginning under the final Restoration, were driven by political considerations and the desire to strengthen France’s Mediterranean positions.
The conquest of Algeria involved violent conflicts, with resistance from Emir Abd el-Kader, leading a holy war against the French military. Despite widespread awareness in France of the raids and violence in Algeria, liberal support for colonial expansion persisted. The Second Republic reorganized Algerian territories, creating provinces and continuing the expansion during the 1850s. The collapse of the Second Empire in 1871 led to an uprising in Greater Kabylia, repressed in 1872. The conquered Algeria witnessed a land confiscation policy aimed at encouraging European settler establishment. The Third Republic integrated Algeria into French territory but maintained the colonial structure, reinforcing the division between citizens and subjects.
the colonial conquest -mosaic of situations
The colonial empire formed at the end of the 19th century consisted of old colonies, the Algerian departments, and territories conquered or dominated between the 1880s and 1910s. Republican leaders, despite their desire to break with Bonapartism, continued and accelerated the colonial expansion in territories like Senegambia and the Indochinese peninsula. The formation of French West Africa (AOF) and French Equatorial Africa (AEF) represented key developments in Africa. Protectorates were established in Tunisia, Annam, Tonkin, and Morocco. The Third Republic emerged as an imperial nation-state covering 11 million km², with 40 million citizens and 50 million subjects, showcasing diverse and unequal individual and collective rights.
a mission to civilise
The French Republic justified its colonial enterprise in the late 19th century under the banner of “civilization.” Official speeches emphasized knowledge, science, infrastructure development, and the extension of European capitalism worldwide. The “colonial party” actively presented the empire as a strength and asset, promoting the idea of French colonization as more concerned with the progress of populations under its control than other imperial powers. However, this “civilizing mission” was more of an ex post reconstruction than a principle claimed by contemporary actors. Colonial authorities endorsed racial distinctions and relied on missionary congregations for education and health tasks. Despite claims of assimilation, the French Empire demonstrated multiple exceptions and accommodations, creating new situations without erasing the historical realities of local societies.
Colonial Bags
The colonies served as places of relegation for criminals and delinquents deemed preferable to be moved away from metropolitan territory. The establishment of “colonial prisons” was implemented under the Second Empire, with locations in Guyana and New Caledonia. These prisons housed various categories of prisoners, including the “transported,” “relegated,” and “deported,” symbolizing political repression and injustice in the Second Empire and the Third Republic.
The formation of colonial administrative elites: the “colo” against Sciences Po
During the late 19th century, the need for competent personnel to administer the expanding empire led to the creation of the corps of colonial administrators in 1887. The Colonial School, founded in 1889, played a crucial role in training administrators, but faced challenges from other institutions like the École libre des sciences politiques (Sciences Po). The latter, founded in 1871, had a “colonial section” and contested the monopoly of colonial administrative elite training claimed by the Colonial School. The competition between these institutions continued into the early 20th century, with the Colonial School ultimately becoming the primary training ground for colonial administrators.
dates
1830: start of the conquest of Algeria
1831: creation of the Foreign Legion
1840s: General Bugeaud in Algeria
1841: Rules laid down for the development of the railways
31 May 1850: law reducing the electorate
2 December 1851: Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte’s coup d’état
December 1851: plebiscite to ratify the coup d’état and adopt the new Constitution
14 January 1852: Adoption of the new Constitution
9 October 1852: “The Empire is peace”.
November 1852: plebiscite on the re-establishment of the Empire
1852: Crédit mobilier founded by the Péreire brothers
1852: Law on mutual aid societies
1854-1856 : Crimean War
1859 : Italian War
1860: Cobden-Chevalier free trade treaty
1860: Intervention in Lebanon in support of Eastern Christians
1863: Conquest of Cambodia
1864: Foundation of the First International
1864: Abolition of the offence of coalition, which allowed strikes
1867: right of interpellation (allows questions to be put to the government)
1868: Freedom of the press and assembly relaxed (if the subject is not political)
1868-1869: martyrs of the Republican cause
1869: Suez Canal inaugurated
8 May 1870: plebiscite on liberal reforms
1870: strike at Le Creusot
1870 : Crémieux decree (nationality for Jews)
19 July 1870 : Austro-Prussian war
2 September 1870 : Defeat at Sedan
4 September 1870 : Proclamation of the Republic
28 January 1871: Armistice
March-May 1871: Paris Commune
May 1871: Bloody Week
1872 : Army reform
1871-1873: Thiers becomes President
1873-1875: Triumph of the moral order
1875: Constitutional laws
1877: Death of Thiers
16 May 1877: institutional crisis
1879: Grévy elected
1881: Code de l’Indigénat comes into force
1881 : Protectorate in Turkey
1881 : law on freedom of the press
1881-1882: Ferry laws on education
1883: Inauguration of the monument to the Republic (place de la Rép)
1884: Law on trade union freedom
1885 : Ferry/Clémenceau debate on Tonkin
1885-1889: Boulangist crisis
1889 : Creation of the colonial school
1894: Ministry of the Colonies
1895: French overseas territories conquered
1895: Conquest of Madagascar (violent)
1912: Moroccan protectorate
1931: peak of colonial culture
personalities
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, having lived in exile, was sensitive to poverty and the question of nationalities. He was pushed forward during the presidential elections of 1848 by those who thought they were manipulating him, but proved to be more of a political finesse than an emperor.
Thiers, a former Orleanist. Elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848, then to the Republican opposition under the Empire and President between 1871 and 1873 = great Republican funeral.
Gambetta, a lawyer who distinguished himself as an opponent of the Empire. Elected in 1869 on a radical left + nationalist platform in 1870 + President of the Council in 1881 + died in 1882
Victor Noir, Republican killed after a dispute with Napoleon III’s family.
Péreire brothers, former Saint-Simonians who became bankers under the Second Empire.
Michel Chevalier, a former Saint-Simonian who advised Napoleon III on free trade: Cobden-Chevalier treaty with England.
Henri Tolain, a chisel-maker who signed the manifesto of the 60 in 1864 (a leading figure in trade unionism).
Empress Eugénie, married LNB in 1853, very Catholic
Emperor Maximilian, brother of Franz Joseph, sent to Mexico (1864-1867) & ended up shot dead
Juarez, president who re-established the Republic in 1867 after the empire.
Grévy, republican (not moderate) elected president in 1879
General Boulanger, Minister of War in 1886 after having been a general, he multiplied his provocations to Germany then stood for several elections “Dissolution, Revision, Constituent” but fled to Brussels in 1889, which sounded the end of Boulangism.
Dey of Algiers, head of an elective monarchy
General Bugeaud, sent in the 40s to complete the conquest of Algeria (organised the army + administration in a violent manner)
Abd el-Kader, representative from 1839 of resistance to colonisation by the French + supporter of an open Islam + Arab national revival
Ismael Urbain, a Saint-Simonian who converted to Islam and advised Napoleon III on his Mediterranean policy
Eugène Etienne, founder (republican) of the colonial party, an influential group for colonisation
Notions
Democratic Caesarism - plebiscites - Boulangisme - “necessary liberties” - pauperism - nationalities - Crimean War - Mediterranean projects - Mexican expedition - Commune - moral order - crisis of 16 May 1877 - republican model - entrenchment of the Republic - “small countries” - Code de l’Indigénat - protectorates - civilising mission - colonial administration
