The emergence of the social question Flashcards
syllabus
Engels, The Situation of the Working Class, 1845, chose to work with “ordinary workers” instead of the middle class. The interests of the middle class were different from those of the workers: they were content to send reports without doing anything + no worker ever treated him as a foreigner = International.
Tocqueville, Mémoire sur le paupérisme, 1835, the richest peoples are those with the greatest inequalities. Pauperism grew at the same time as Poor Laws. “Man […] has a natural passion for idleness”. Trying to find out whether the poor are poor through no fault of their own would be a waste of time. It would be too complicated to find work for them to do. Asking for alms in the name of the law is more humiliating than asking for them out of the compassion of others. Without obligation, charity creates a moral bond BUT it is not enough = encourage workers to save?
Jeanne-Désirée Gay, Letter to the King, 1832. Asks the king to act for progress. As far as prostitution was concerned, the proletarian girl was being forced into extremes that were not necessarily moral.
I/ the discovery of Pauperisme
summary
social surveys of liberal bourgeoisie
The Social Surveys of the Liberal Bourgeoisie
The 19th-century celebration of industrial progress and technology is overshadowed by concerns about the negative impacts of industrialization. Social surveys, initiated by doctors, hygienists, and charitable organizations, emerge in the 1830s. These investigations, such as the pioneering work of Dr. James Philipps Kay-Shuttleworth in Manchester and Dr. Louis-René Villermé in France, reveal the harsh working conditions, long hours, child labor, low wages, and inadequate living conditions of the working classes. In response to the challenges posed by industrialization, the liberal bourgeoisie initiates social surveys during the early 19th century. Concerns intensify in the 1830s, coinciding with events like the second cholera pandemic and revolutionary episodes. These surveys, often led by doctors, hygienists, and charitable organizations, focus on documenting the working, living, and housing conditions of the working classes. Notable examples include Dr. James Philipps Kay-Shuttleworth’s survey in Manchester (1832) and Dr. Louis-René Villermé’s investigation into workers employed in the textile industry in France (1840).
liberal credo of non interventionism
Despite growing concerns about pauperism, liberal elites generally advocate a mistrust of public intervention. Influenced by the liberal credo, thinkers like Thomas Malthus in the UK argue against state assistance, viewing it as counterproductive. The criticism extends to the Poor Laws in England, leading to the 1834 New Poor Law, which tightened conditions for public assistance and introduced workhouses. The liberal philosophy rejects extensive state involvement in poverty reduction or labor regulation, emphasizing individual responsibility. Despite growing awareness of the harms of industrialization, liberal elites generally advocate a non-interventionist stance by the state. The prevailing liberal philosophy, influenced by figures like Thomas Malthus, attributes poverty to natural demographic checks and opposes state intervention in poverty alleviation. The criticism is directed at existing Poor Laws, and there is a strong sentiment against public assistance, with a preference for individual responsibility over collective protection. The liberal approach is epitomized by the 1834 New Poor Law in the United Kingdom, which tightened conditions for public assistance and introduced workhouses.
era of philanthropy
While opposing state intervention, the wealthy demonstrate a philanthropic approach to addressing social issues. Philanthropy becomes a prominent solution, with elites engaging in various charitable works and initiatives. The goal is to moralize the poor, instill dominant values, and bridge social gaps. Philanthropic efforts include the creation of orphanages, hospices, dispensaries, and maternal charitable societies. Social paternalism rises as employers, aiming to stabilize the workforce, provide attractive working and housing conditions, often with symbolic family-like supervision.While advocating non-intervention, the wealthy classes actively engage in philanthropic initiatives during the first half of the 19th century. Philanthropy becomes a means to address social issues through private initiatives, emphasizing moralization of the poor and workers. Figures like Baron de Gérando popularize the “visit to the poor,” and numerous works, orphanages, and dispensaries are established through donations and legacies. Philanthropists seek to recreate social ties and maintain guardianship over the poor, promoting values of frugality and individual responsibility. Social paternalism rises, with employers taking the lead in improving working and living conditions for workers, often creating symbolic familial relationships within their establishments. The era sees the proliferation of savings banks and friendly societies as forms of promoting individual responsibility and collective assistance.
- utopias to class struggle - the first socialisms
summary
science religion and socialism - the precursors
Robert Owen: A Philanthropist Industrialist
- The 19th century witnesses a radical criticism of industrialization and private property.
- Robert Owen, a philanthropist industrialist, manages the New Lanark spinning mill in Scotland and becomes aware of industrial organization’s harmful effects.
- In 1813, Owen publishes “A New View of Society,” advocating a complete societal reorganization, denouncing competition and private property as causes of widespread misery.
- Owen’s vision includes a utopian society based on rational principles and collective property to counter industrial system scourges.
- His influence extends as he establishes the New Harmony community in the United States in 1825, inspiring later cooperative movements.
Count Claude-Henri Rouvroy de Saint-Simon
- Saint-Simon, a critic of the Ancien Régime and privileges, defends the societal role of engineers, intellectuals, and artists.
- His ideas emphasize trust in science, a form of spirituality, and a new belief in reason and progress.
- In 1825, Saint-Simon publishes “New Christianity,” promoting a new secular religion.
- Saint-Simonianism rises, advocating economic reconstruction, credit for innovation, and infrastructure projects led by engineers and financiers.
- The movement experiences internal conflicts, with some members, like Prosper Enfantin, embarking on a journey to Egypt and Algeria.
Women in Saint-Simonianism
- Saint-Simonianism allows women to participate and be heard, inspired by Charles Fourier’s criticism of conjugality.
- Activists like Eugénie Niboyet and Reine Guindorf contribute to the movement, initiating the newspaper “La Femme libre” in 1832.
- La Femme Libre contributors advocate civil and political emancipation of women, creating a unique blend of proletarian feminism and religiosity.
the efferverscence of early socialisme
Utopian Socialisms: 1830-1840
- The 1830s and 1840s witness a surge in social and socialist reflections, particularly in France.
- “Utopian socialisms” emerge, characterized by creative intellectual and political endeavors.
- Fourierism gains popularity, with Charles Fourier criticizing the adverse effects of industrial progress and envisioning harmonious communities based on passion complementarity.
- Attempts to establish phalansteres, like the one in Guise by Jean-Baptiste Godin, reflect the practical application of Fourier’s ideas.
- Étienne Cabet and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon contribute to socialist thoughts, with Cabet imagining an ideal city in “Voyage en Icarie,” and Proudhon denouncing wealth monopolization in “What is property?”
Socialism with Political Objectives
- Louis Blanc and Pierre Leroux bridge socialism with political action.
- Blanc’s “Organisation du travail” (1841) criticizes unlimited competition and calls for a republican government to regulate the economy.
- Leroux advocates republican socialism, focusing on redistributing wealth to address economic inequalities and empower citizens.
- These thinkers form a crucial link between utopian socialisms and political objectives, paving the way for the birth of the working class movement.
Birth of the working class
Emergence of Working Class Consciousness
Edward Palmer Thompson’s Perspective
- Edward Palmer Thompson’s “The Formation of the Working Class in England” (1963) emphasizes the role of social struggles, political engagement, and cultural practices in shaping the English working class.
- Thompson highlights the significance of luddism, the Peterloo massacre, and trade unions in fostering worker unity and awareness.
Rise of Workers’ Movements in Europe
- Workers’ agitation intensifies in France (1830-1840) with canut revolts and the proliferation of workers’ newspapers.
- In the Germanic space, 249 popular revolts occur between 1830 and 1847, with notable events like the 1844 Silesian home weavers’ revolt.
- Marx sees the Silesian uprising as a precursor to the mobilization of working classes in Germanic countries.
Karl Marx and the Class Struggle
Marx and Engels: Critique of Utopian Socialisms
- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels criticize utopian socialisms for lacking rigor and ambition in addressing the interests of the working class.
- Engels’ “The Situation of the Working Class in England” (1845) highlights the need for the working class to abandon expectations from the middle class.
- Marx and Engels join the League of Communists in 1847, renaming it to emphasize their collectivist project.
The Communist Manifesto
- In 1848, Marx and Engels publish “The Communist Manifesto,” calling for international proletarian uprisings and laying the foundations of historical materialism.
- The manifesto asserts that the class struggle arises from the capitalist mode of production, leading to the need for proletarians to conquer the state.
Birth of a Conscious Working Class
- The English working class’s early awareness results from political, social, and religious factors, challenging deterministic explanations.
- Collective struggles, cultural practices, and political engagement contribute to the emergence of the working class in Europe.
- The intellectual and social effervescence reflects conflicting relationships between liberalism, democracy, and socialism during this period.
3/ liberalism and democracy - historical conflict
summary
a/ chartist movement of england
- Liberalism and Democracy: A History of Conflict
1.1 The English Liberal System Tested by Chartism
- Overview (36): During the 19th century, conflicts between bourgeois and liberal elites and opposition to the new social order sharpened the tensions between liberalism and democratic aspirations. Liberalism’s triumph coincided with the rise of social and political mobilizations.
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Chartism (37-39):
- Background: The British parliamentary model faced strong protests since the late 18th century. The Reform Bill of 1832 aimed to address under-representation but fell short of meeting demands from the middle and working classes.
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Chartism Movement (38):
- Origins: Chartism emerged as a powerful social and political movement in the 19th century.
- Objectives: The People’s Charter of 1838 outlined six objectives, including universal male suffrage and annual elections.
- Mobilization: Chartism became a mass movement with widespread support, engaging in petition campaigns, publications, and boycotts.
- Impact: Despite collecting millions of signatures in petition campaigns, the movement slowed after 1848, and major political reforms were not achieved.
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Economic Response (39):
- Anti-Corn Law League: Industrialists and businessmen campaigned against protectionist Corn Laws, seeking free trade for economic growth.
- Repeal of Corn Laws (1846): Prime Minister Robert Peel, despite initial resistance, repealed the Corn Laws in 1846, aligning with free trade principles.
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Women’s Anti-Corn Law League (39):
- Involvement: Women actively participated in the Anti-Corn Law League, challenging traditional gender norms.
- Activities: Women organized events, including large fundraisers, contributing significantly to the movement’s financial success.
- Impact: Women’s involvement diversified justifications for the movement, emphasizing morality, justice, and challenging stereotypes.
Popular revolts under july monarchy
July Monarchy (40):
- Origins: Established in July 1830 after a popular revolution, emphasizing national sovereignty.
- Reforms (40): Initial reforms attempted, but the regime quickly distanced itself from the workers and republican circles that played a role in the revolution.
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Popular Unrest (41):
- Riots in England (1830): Rural riots in England in 1830 reflected discontent among agricultural workers.
- Lyon Silk Workers (1831): The “canuts” of Lyon, silk workers, rose up against economic challenges and fought for the specificity of their economic and social organization.
- Challenges: Despite briefly gaining control of Lyon in 1831, the canuts faced significant repression, revealing the resistance of liberal and conservative elites to autonomous workers’ movements.
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Republican Circles (43):
- Discontent: Republicans felt cheated, criticizing the regime for not supporting the Polish insurgents and facing criticism during the cholera epidemic of 1832.
- June 1832 Uprising: Significant unrest in Paris, marked by barricades and clashes during General Lamarque’s funeral, leading to a harsh crackdown.
capacity of liberalism and democratic demands
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Contradictions of July Monarchy (44):
- Liberalism’s Contradictions: The July monarchy marked the apogee of political liberalism but revealed contradictions. While supporting press freedom and individual rights, the regime resisted popular protests that had been crucial to its rise.
- Elitist Model: Guizot’s vision emphasized individual responsibility, economic success, and property ownership as prerequisites for political participation.
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Satire and Social Criticism (45):
- Daumier and Philippon: Satirical portrayals by artists like Daumier and Philippon critiqued the elitism and hypocrisy of the parliamentary government.
- King’s Mockery: The king was caricatured as a pear, symbolizing the excesses and opulence of the monarchy.
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Resistance and Calls for Reform (46):
- Legitimacy Challenges: The regime attempted to legitimize itself through historical narratives, but dissatisfaction grew.
- Opposition Tactics (46): Republican banquets served as a unique form of mobilization, allowing opponents to gather and challenge the regime.
- Democratic Demands (46): Calls for a lower census and universal suffrage conflicted with the liberal principles of the July monarchy, leading to tensions between democratic aspirations and existing political structures.
dates
1601: Poor Laws, on assistance to the poor
1778: First savings bank in Hamburg
1798: Essay on the principles of Population, Malthus
1800-1850: Fresh population rises from 28M to 36M compared with 16M-28M in England
1811-1812: Luddism
1813: A new view of society, Robert Owen
1815-1819: first enquiries by the British Parliament
1815: Inquiry into begging
1816 : poor harvests
1818: Creation of the Caisse d’épargne in France
1819: Inquiry into child labour
1819: Cotton Mills & Factories Act, prohibiting the employment of children under the age of 9
1824: Law authorising the formation of trade unions
1825: The New Christianity, Saint-Simon
1825: Death of Saint-Simon
1830: Swing Riots
1830: L’avenir newspaper founded, social Catholicism
1831: Canuts in Lyon
1832: Second cholera pandemic
1832: The moral and physical condition of the working classes employed in the cotton industry in Manchester, James Philipps Kay
1832: Reform Bill, extension of the right to vote
1833: Factory Act, for inspection
1833: Founding of the Society of St Vincent de Paul
1833-1834: break-up of the Saint-Simonian movement
1834: Canuts in Lyon
15 April 1834: Rue Transnonain massacre
1834-1835: Repressive laws
1834: Words of a Believer, by Lamennais
1834: New Poor Law = work houses
1837-1849: publication of Oliver Twist
1838: First charter (Chartism) = 1.3M
1839: Journey to Icaria, Cabet
1840: What is property, Proudhon
1840: Tableau de l’état physique et moral des ouvriers dans les fabriques de coton, de laine et de soie, Louis René Villermé
1840: Walks in London, Flora Tristan
1840s: Hungry forties
1840-1901: Irish population falls from 8.5 to 4.5 million
1841: Child labour law in France (not under 8 years old & no more than 8 hours for under 12s)
1842: 3 million signatures for the second charter
1843: Monster meeting in Tara
1844: The Republic of God, Pecqueur
1844: Revolt of the weavers of Silesia
1845: Sybil, or the Two Nations, Disraeli
1845: Engels investigates the situation of the working class
1846-47: poor harvests
1846: Corn Laws abolished
1847: Banqueting campaign
1848 : Manifesto of the Communist Party, Marx & Engels
1848: 6M announced BUT rather 2M because of frauds
1848: Demonstration in Hyde Park
1849 : Free Trade Acts England
1850: town planning law on substandard housing (inspired by Villermé)
1867: Capital, Marx
1869: strikes in Seraing
1869: Suez Canal
1870: strikes at Le Creusot
1881: only 10-12% of French people have a savings account
1892: Weavers, Hauptmann
1918: 5 of the Charter’s points have been adopted
personalities
Alexis de Tocqueville, theorist of pauperism, due to growth and inequality (when the population seems to be getting richer, there are more and more poor people) = Mémoire sur le paupérisme (Memoir on pauperism)
Casimir Perier, President of the Council, who died of cholera in 1832
Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative PM of the UK who, before becoming a politician, wrote Sybil or the Two Nations, 1845
Dickens, novelist who took an interest in social issues, notably in Oliver Twist (a critique of the New Poor Law)
Louis René Villermé, a surgeon who turned to statistics = Tableau de l’état physique et moral des ouvriers dans les fabriques de coton, de laine et de soie (Table of the physical and moral state of workers in cotton, wool and silk factories), 1840
Flora Tristan, author of Promenades dans Londres = reaching out to the poorest sections of the population
Heinrich Heine, German poet who wrote a famous poem about the weavers of Silesia
Hauptmann, playwright who in 1892 wrote The Weavers, about the working class in Silesia
Thomas Malthus, English economist who theorised about the Malthusian trap (growth in living standards prevented by demographic growth)
Joseph-Marie de Gérando, baron who introduced the idea of visits to the poor (Le visiteur du pauvre)
Benjamin Delessert, founder of the Caisse d’épargne de Paris and philanthropist.
de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, liberal founder of workers’ workshops, imported the idea of vaccinia to combat smallpox; his funeral was attended by a large number of people in 1827 & gave rise to an exhibition.
Robert Owen, philanthropic industrialist who founded a spinning mill in New Lanarck which enabled him to test his ideas (prohibiting child labour & seeking regulations) + very critical of capitalism + New Harmony in the US but a failure
comte de Saint-Simon, based his doctrine on confidence in progress + opposition between the working classes (bees) & the rentier elites (hornets)
Saint Amand Bazard, “father” of Saint-Simonism after being founder & director of the Charbonnerie
Prosper Enfantin, “father” of Saint-Simonism
Chevalier and the Péreire brothers, famous Saint-Simonians who held positions of responsibility during the Second Empire and helped imbue it with Saint-Simonian values
Désirée Véret, a Saint-Simonian who founded the newspaper La femme libre, against the exclusion of women from the Saint-Simonian decision-making process
Eugénie Niboyet, a Saint-Simonian who took an interest in education, particularly for women
Etienne Cabet, enshrined the principle of community organisation, abolition of private property, Le Voyage en Icarie, 1839 = communist utopia
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, anarchist libertarian thought, Qu’est-ce que la propriété? 1840 = defence of the property of small independent people for an association, mutualism
Louis Blanc, republican socialism marked by the failure of the Ateliers nationaux to organise workers’ work.
Constantin Pecqueur, La République de Dieu, 1844 (religious union for the immediate practice of equality and fraternity)
Buchez, creation of workers’ associations (Jesus was the first of the proletarians)
de Lamennais, Paroles d’un croyant, 1834 = rebelling against injustice in the name of the Gospel BUT disowned by the Church (he is pro-separation of Church and State because the State reduces authority)
Marx, historical materialism + class struggle. He coined the term “utopian socialisms” to criticise the beginnings of socialism (not concrete enough in his view). Manifesto of the Communist Party, 1848 + Capital, 1867
Engels, Marx’s companion, an economist, conducted social surveys in 1845 & same opinions as Marx.
Lovett, leader of Chartism
O’Connor, another Chartist leader who was suspected of fraud in 1848
O’Connell, leader of the Irish protest against English rule. Organiser of the Tara meeting ?
Cobden & Bright, anti-Corn Laws League = lowering the DDs
Robert Peel, PM who abolished the Corn Laws in 1846
Honoré Daumier, journalist & caricaturist = notably of Louis-Philippe = the pear
François Guizot, historian, liberal, President of the Council under Louis-Philippe = fervent defender of censal suffrage = “enrich yourselves through work and savings”.
