The Third Crusade

Question 1

The Battle of Hattin: The Excuse

Answer 1

He was provoked by Reynald of Chatillon who raided a Muslim caravan on its way from Cairo to Damascus. Reynald’s action contravened the truce with Saladin but he refused to pay compensation. Saladin used this excuse to fight. When the truce expired in April 1187, he began to gather forces for the invasion of Palestine.

On 1st May, he easily overwhelmed over 100 Templar and Hospitaller knights at the Battle of Cresson. Saladin’s army withdrew carrying the heads of the Christian soldiers on their spears, it was a blow to Frank morale

Question 2

The Battle of Hattin: The Two Sides

Answer 2

By June 1187, both sides had gathered their troops for battle. Saladin’s aggression meant Raymond of Tripoli expelled the Muslims from his territory and supported King Guy.

16,000 Christians assembled at Saffuriya, including around 1200 knights.

They were heavily outnumbered to Saladin’s 30,000 strong force including 12,000 cavalry. In the heat of summer, the light armoured Muslims had an advantage over the heavily armed Franks.

Question 3

The Battle of Hattin: The Trap

Answer 3

On 2nd July, Saladin laid his trap by besieging Raymond’s wife in the citadel at Tiberias. Raymond advised Guy to avoid confrontation, hoping a ransom could be paid for his wife, but Guy rejected the advice. This decision would ultimately end the 90-year occupation of Jerusalem.

Question 4

The Battle of Hattin: The Battle

Answer 4

Tiberias was a day’s march from Saffuriya, after a night without food or water, they took up position south of the Hills of Hattin. Saladin made sure that his troops were well watered at Kafr Sabt. As Guy’s troops began to dehydrate, his used his superior number of cavalry to attack.

Question 5

The Battle of Hattin: The Aftermath

Answer 5

The Latin Itinerarium records that Reynald of Chatillon was captured and brought before Saladin who personally severed his head.

Many were captured including Guy and his nobles along with the True Cross, the kingdom’s most important relic. It was seized by the Muslims and paraded through the streets of Damascus.

Saladin followed up his victory by attacking the principle Latin ports and towns. Tyre was the only important port south of Tripoli which was not in Muslim hands.

Question 6

When did Conrad arrive at Tyre? What did he do?

Answer 6

Conrad of Montferrat landed at Tyre in August 1187, his arrival was important because it stopped the Muslims from taking it. Therefore, the Christians maintained a foothold on the coast, which could act as a stepping-stone for the crusading armies from the West.

Conrad took control of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (title), as King Guy was in captivity. In fighting off Saladin, Conrad received assistance from Sicily, Pisa and England over the next three years in support of his bravery.

Question 7

Audita Tremendi

Answer 7

In Autumn 1187, news of Saladin’s victory at Hattin and his recapture of Jerusalem reached Europe. People were deeply shocked, Pope Urban III was said to have died of grief.

His successor, Pope Gregory VIII issued the bull Audita Tremendi in late October 1187. The bull described the horror of the Battle of Hattin and detailed the atrocities committed by the Muslims. It blamed the sins of the Franks in the crusader states but insisted that Christians in Europe were also guilty. People were deeply moved and there was a massive response.

Question 8

Richard I: Background

Answer 8

Richard was the son of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine (the former wife of Louis VII of France). He was drawn into the disputes between the Angevin monarchy and the King of France.

Richard began to claim land from the French and had constant arguments with his father. Through the 1180s, Richard was sometimes in confrontation and sometimes allied with the French (against his father).

Question 9

Richard I: Taking the Cross

Answer 9

In November 1187, Richard took the cross, this was extraordinary as he needed to defend Aquitaine and ensure his succession to the Angevin Empire. It may have been religious piety, but he was the great-grandson of Fulk of Anjou and had family ties, he may have also have seen the Third Crusade as an opportunity to prove himself. When Henry II died in July 1189, Richard inherited huge resources with which to fight the Third Crusade.

Question 10

Richard I: Preparations

Answer 10

Henry II had already implemented the Saladin Tithe, a 10% tax on revenues and movable properties.

Richard sold land, titles and property to raise money, he joked he would sell London if he could find a buyer. The economic planning was important because Richard decided to travel by sea.

Building and hiring ships was expensive but quicker. It also allowed Richard to eliminate the poor and unarmed pilgrims – spaces on ships were limited and had to be paid for. Richard’s army would be a disciplined fighting force, to emphasise this, the King introduced harsh penalties for misconduct.

Question 11

Phillip II: Taking the Cross

Answer 11

Phillip took the cross with Henry II in January 1188 and they met at Gisors near Paris in an attempt to settle their differences, where they heard a sermon from the archbishop Joscius of Tyre who described the disastrous situation in the crusader states.

According to one chronicler, a cross of Christ appeared in the sky above the two kings, they set their differences aside and decided to lead a new crusade. The English would wear a white cross and the French red to distinguish them.

However, the cooperation did not last long and by the end of March the kings were in conflict again.

Question 12

Phillip II: Preparations

Answer 12

Richard ruled a more powerful realm and had more money at his disposal; his army was therefore the most organised and best resourced, Phillips was far smaller and not as well-equipped.

The rivalry was intensified by a difference in personality – Richard was a man of action and warfare whereas Phillip was more calculating and cautious and was determined to ensure that he did not weaken his power within the French kingdom. The rivalry meant that the departure of the main crusading armies was delayed by nearly a year as the mistrust meant that one would not leave without the other.

Question 13

Frederick I: Preparations

Answer 13

In wealth, resources and political power, Frederick outstripped Richard and Phillip. He had played a major role in the Second Crusade as second in command to his uncle, Conrad III. In March 1188, he took the cross at Mainz.

Frederick intended on leaving in a year and began preparations by exiling his main political opponent and establishing his son as heir.

Question 14

Frederick I: Crusade

Answer 14

When Frederick set out led a huge and well-equipped crusading army. 100,000 men including 20,000 knights set out. Frederick succeeded in crossing Asia Minor with over half of his military strength left, something the Second Crusade had been unable to do.

On 10 June 1190, Frederick drowned whilst trying to cross a river, before Richard and Phillip had even set out from Vezelay. This was a terrible blow to the Third Crusade and only 5,000 soldiers arrived at Acre.

Question 15

The Kingdom of Jerusalem Problem

Answer 15

Conrad had refused to hand over Tyre to Guy when he was released by Saladin in June 1188. This prompted Guy to lay siege to Acre in August 1189. The Christians were caught between Acre’s garrison and Saladin’s relieving force, but they would not be dislodged. Guy’s audacity won him considerable support and in April 1190, Guy recognised him as King.

However, Guy was only King of Jerusalem by right of marriage and in the autumn of 1190, Guy’s wife, Queen Sibylla died. The bloodline of the house of Jerusalem now rested in Queen Sibylla’s younger sister, Isabella. Conrad of Montferrat abducted and then married Isabella on 24 November 1190, he thought the throne was his but Guy still claimed the crown himself.

Question 16

The Siege of Acre

Answer 16

Guy laid siege to Acre in August 1189, Richard arrived at the siege on 8th June 1191. Phillip’s presence had done little to aid the siege but Richard’s wealth, numerous siege engines and personal vigour soon had an effect.

A month of intense bombardment, mining and attacks took their toll on the defenders. Saladin could not break the Christian blockade and Acre was doomed.

On 12th July 1191, the city surrendered after one of the longest and costly sieges carried out in Asia.

Question 17

The Siege of Acre: Terms of Surrender

Answer 17

The terms of surrender had been agreed between the Crusaders and the city’s defenders, not Saladin himself. The defenders bought their lives for a ransom of 2000 gold dinars, the return of 1500 Frankish prisoners and the True Cross.

However, the Emir struggled to pay the first instalment and Richard had 2700 Muslim prisoners marched out and massacred. The brutality shocked his enemy and contrasted greatly with Saladin generous treatment.

Question 18

Solving the Kingdom of Jerusalem Problem

Answer 18

Richard supported Guy becoming King, whilst Phillip supported Conrad. On 28th July 1191, a compromise was agreed. They decided Guy should remain King in his lifetime, and when he died Conrad would succeed him with royal revenues being equally divided between the two men.

On the surface, it seemed equitable, but Conrad remained dissatisfied and refused to work with Richard, engaging in his own negotiations with Saladin.

Question 19

When did Philip go home and why?

Answer 19

Phillip had suffered ill-health and went home on 3rd August 1191 leaving the control of the crusade in Richard’s hands.

Question 20

The March to Jaffa: Statistics

Answer 20

Richard realised he had to maintain the momentum of the crusaders’ victory at Acre and he set out for Jaffa on 22nd August 1191. The 80-mile march required strict discipline in conditions of intense heat and constant enemy bombardment. 15,000 men were organised into formation

Question 21

The March to Jaffa: Organisation

Answer 21

The elite knights were in key positions: Templars at the vanguard and the Hospitallers in the rear-guard.

The crusaders marched along the coast where they could be supplied by the crusader fleet and protected on one side from enemy fire. Infantry and archers marched along the flank towards the enemy.

Ambroise wrote that “Richard was particularly insistent that no crusader should break ranks, as they would make them more vulnerable”.

Richard gave his troops regular rest days and made sure they were well supplied. It was Richard’s leadership and strategy that allowed the crusaders to resist Saladin’s forces.

Question 22

The Battle of Arsuf: Setting

Answer 22

The Crusaders were just 25 miles from Jaffa by the 7th September. If Richard’s forces captured Jaffa so soon after the fall of Acre then the consequences would be horrendous, Saladin had already lost his appearance of invincibility, he planned a massive assault on Richard’s forces.

Saladin ordered his whole force of 30,000 men to attack the crusaders when they emerged onto the plain of Jaffa.

At nine o’clock the attacks began, wave after wave of mounted warriors fired arrow after arrow at the crusading army. Richard’s priority was to keep the army moving forward in formation, he knew that a break in the line could prove fatal.

Question 23

The Battle of Arsuf: Quick Thinking

Answer 23

The King looked back in horror and saw two knights charging towards Saladin’s forces, it was at this moment that Richard’s skill as a general was revealed. He instantly ordered a cavalry charge, which hammered into the enemy.

The crusaders fought off two fierce counterattacks. The central division of the Muslim army buckled first, then the entire force was beaten back. Richard had displayed immense personal valour, his commitment and clever leadership dealt the second blow to Saladin’s prestige.

Question 24

The Battle of Arsuf: Historiography

Answer 24

Asbridge argues that historians have too readily followed Ambroise’s account of events. It presents Richard as the hero who sought confrontation, Asbridge argues that the King saw the Battle of Arsuf as a response to one of many attacks. If the role of the King has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that the success of the crusaders reaching Jaffa was a major turning point. Saladin had not been totally defeated but Muslim morale was low.

Question 25

Dates for the First Attempt for Jerusalem

Answer 25

29th October 1191 - 13th January 1192

Question 26

Ascalon or Egypt?

Answer 26

The crusaders had only been in Jaffa a few days when news reached them that Saladin had chosen to sacrifice Ascalon. As his men began to pull down the walls of the city, Richard argued for an immediate attack to threaten Saladin’s communications with Egypt.

However, a large number of nobles resisted and were determined to make a direct assault on Jerusalem. Richard could not persuade them to save Ascalon.

Richard wrote to the Genoese asking their support in a campaign in Egypt, but the bulk of the army did not share his long-term perspective of appropriating the country’s wealth. The Third crusade stalled, staying in Jaffa.

Question 27

The 1st Attempt for Jerusalem: To Beit Nuba

Answer 27

The crusaders set out and began the painstaking work of rebuilding the crusader forts to along the route to Jerusalem.

Saladin’s forces repeatedly attacked them, but alongside these skirmishes, diplomacy was taking place. Richard offered his sister, Joan, as a wife to the Sultan’s brother.

As winter set in, the rain and cold slowed the crusaders down, it took them two months to get the Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem.

Question 28

The 2nd Attempt for Jerusalem: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and Richard’s Indecision

Answer 28

In the Spring of 1192, Richard faced increasing pressure from within and beyond the Holy Land. In April, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem after an election by the nobles of the kingdom. Guy had received no votes at all and Richard sold him Cyprus as compensation. Before he could be crowned, Conrad was stabbed to death by two Hashshashin in the streets of Tyre on 28th April. Eight days later, Richard’s and Phillip’s nephew, Henry II of Champagne married Queen Isabella and took the title.

Rumours spread that Richard had contracted the murder. On 29th May, the King began to fear for his Angevin lands when he learned Phillip was plotting with his younger brother, Prince John. Richard fell into a depression, unable to decide what to do next. On 31st May, he was overtaken when leading nobles renewed the march on Jerusalem.

Question 29

Dates of the 2nd Attempt for Jerusalem

Answer 29

31st May 1192 - 4th July 1192

Question 30

2nd Attempt on Jerusalem Timeline

Answer 30

Saladin’s spies brought him the news and he began to reassemble his armies. Since his victories at Hattin and Jerusalem in 1187, Saladin’s jihad commitment had deepened but his capacity to fight the crusaders had weakened. The Sultan’s financial resources were overstretched and he was struggling to pay for the ongoing war. He had been fighting for six years and his priority was to retreat to Jerusalem and survive the Third Crusade.

The crusaders had advanced on Jerusalem with much greater speed, by 10th June they were at Beit Nuba. Morale was boosted by the discovery of another piece of the True Cross.

Inside the city, Saladin began to despair, he ordered all the wells to be poisoned and prepared to leave the city. Saladin’s tears fell into his prayer mat, but then as evening fell, he received news that the crusaders were retreating.

On the 4th July, the Third Crusade collapsed.

Question 31

Turning Back from Jerusalem again

Answer 31

Richard had argued that the vulnerability of the supply line back to Jaffa, the lack of water and Jerusalem’s formidable defences made a successful attack unlikely. He was supported by a majority of the crusade leaders, only the French contingent wanted to continue. On the 4th July, the Third Crusade collapsed.

Question 32

Turning Back from Jerusalem

Answer 32

Richard and the knights of the crusader states and military orders were worried that supply lines to the coast would be cut off and that, even if Jerusalem was taken, the crusaders would have insufficient manpower to hold it. It was at this point that the impact of Frederick Barbarossa’s death and Phillip II’s departure was most felt.

On 13th January 1192, Richard gave the order to withdraw, this shattered the morale of the Third Crusaders. Richard moved his depressed, divided army to Ascalon to rebuild the walls of the city.

Question 33

The Treaty of Jaffa Date

Answer 33

2nd September 1192

Question 34

Why did the Treaty of Jaffa occur?

Answer 34

At the end of July 1192, Saladin took advantage of the retreat and launched a lightening attack on Jaffa. When Richard heard of Jaffa’s plight, he rushed south from Acre, he knew his men were heavily outnumbered.

The surprise of his attack gave the crusaders an improbable and dramatic victory. Richard’s forces may have been unable to take Jerusalem but his victory at Jaffa showed his skill and valour as a military leader.

Richard had fallen dangerously ill following his victory and he was increasing concerned that his territories in France were in danger. Negotiation was the only option.

Question 35

The Terms of the Treaty of Jaffa

Answer 35

The Treaty of Jaffa was a three year truce:

Saladin was to retain control of Jerusalem.

The Crusaders could keep Acre and Jaffa and the coastal strip between them.

Christian pilgrims were allowed to access the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.

Question 36

Richard’s Personal aims for the Third Crusade (2/1-)

Answer 36

One of Richard’s reasons for taking the cross was to prove himself, his battle strategy at Arsuf and Jaffa as well as the discipline he maintained during the fighting march showed this well as well as displaying his ability to make quick, correct decisions when situations developed.

The organisation of the fighting march shows his strategic ability, with the elite knights in key positions and the crusader fleet protecting one side.

He wanted to invade Egypt but was not able to convince anyone to follow his ideas.

Question 37

The Aim to Recapture Jerusalem (1+/1-)

Answer 37

This was one of the reasons Audita Tremendi was issued. The crusade failed to capture Jerusalem, Richard made the crusading army turn back twice because he feared that even if they captured the city, they would not have enough manpower to be able to keep hold of it.

The signing of the Treaty of Jaffa meant that this was not a total failure as the reason for capturing Jerusalem is so that the pilgrims can visit the Holy Sepulchre. This was able to happen anyway; therefore it cannot have been a complete failure.

Question 38

The Aim to Resolve the Kingdom of Jerusalem

Answer 38

After a series of events, the problem of the Kingdom of Jerusalem was resolved.

Initially, it is resolved by appointing Guy king during his lifetime and Conrad the successor but after a vote of confidence in which Guy received no votes, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king and sold Guy Cyprus as consolidation.

However, before Conrad could take the throne he was murdered by two assassins. A successor that both Richard I and Phillip II were happy with was finally given the title as Henry II of Champagne was a nephew of both of the kings.

Question 39

The Aim to Regain Lost Crusader States (1+/1-)

Answer 39

The regaining of land lost to the Muslims was a success because they managed to retain Acre and Jaffa, as well as the coastal area between them in the Treaty of Jaffa. This meant that much of the kingdom of Jerusalem, with the exception of Jerusalem itself had been recovered.

Ascalon had to be surrendered to the Muslims and the crusade left too early for any real gains as Saladin died very shortly after. This would have allowed the crusaders to triumph as the Muslims argued over the remains of Saladin’s legacy.

Question 40

Was the Third Crusade a success?

Answer 40

The crusade was a success as a military expedition, much land that was lost to the Muslims had been regained.

The crusade was also a personal success for Richard, whose skills and valour earned him the title of “Lionheart” after the Siege of Acre and he led many strategic manoeuvres against Saladin.

However, as a crusade, with the aim of recapturing the Holy City, it had failed as it remained in Saladin’s hands.

However, the blow was softened by the Treaty of Jaffa, which allowed Christian pilgrims to enter the city.

Question 41

When did the Battle of Hattin begin?

Answer 41

On 27th June 1187, Saladin led his men across the River Jordan, the full scale invasion had begun. Saladin’s aim was to draw the Franks away from Saffuriya to a battle ground of his choice.