The sociocultural approach

Question 1

What are cultural norms?

Answer 1

• A cultural norm is a set of rules based on how socially or culturally shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave to be accepted within that group. Norms regulate behaviour within a group. When individuals deviate from social or cultural norms they may be punished, marginalised, stigmatised, or seen as creative and affecting change in society. Being social animals, the need to belong plays a strong role in the desire to conform to group norms.
• Culture is a complex concept that is used in many different ways. “Culture” is how we describe food and eating habits, gender roles, rituals, communication patterns and use of free time within a society. When we talk about culture, we refer to either surface culture or deep culture.

Question 2

What is an etic approach?

Answer 2

To investigate the impacts of culture, psychologists must use an etic approach, etic approaches are taken within cross-cultural research, where behaviour is compared across specific cultures. Etic study involves drawing on the notion of universal properties of cultures, which share common perceptual, cognitive and emotional structures.

Question 3

What are the positives of using an etic approach?

Answer 3

• this type of research uses standardised procedures and materials, making it easily replicated, increasing reliability
• the studies have a high validity as the researchers use the same surveys and tests

Question 4

what are the negatives of using an etic approach?

Answer 4

• if a behaviour is found to be universal, there could be global application to improve the lives of many
• the research may seem foreign to the culture
• strangers coming in to do the research may be viewed with suspicion, and they may not want to disclose much to the researchers
• researchers may be blind to cultural complexities, e.g. cultural subgroups within a culture.

Question 5

what is an emic approach?

Answer 5

To investigate culturally specific behaviours. Emic approaches use a more inductive approach to the study of culture.

Question 6

what are positives of using an emic approach?

Answer 6

• problem focuses and comes up with solutions that can be directly applied to the community being studied
• the researcher develops a relationship with the community, so that there is a sense of trust and openness which may be lacking when using an etic approach

Question 7

what are the negatives of using an emic approach?

Answer 7

• emic research takes a long time to complete and may have limited application
• tests are created specifically for that culture, so it is not possible to develop a high level of reliability
• it is rare for a study to be purely emic, as it may be unreasonable to immerse themselves in a culture with no idea of what they are going to set out to study

Question 8

Takano and Sogon (impact of culture on behaviour) Japanese Asch Study)

Answer 8

Aim: To investigate the rate of conformity of Japanese participants in a replication of Asch’s conformity study

Method; 297 Japanese college students who belonged to the same non-sports college clubs participated. (non-sports clubs were chosen as there is less strict vertical discipline which may result in higher rates of normative conformity). They were split into 40 groups of between 7 and 9 participants, with each group having just one naive participant. Asch’s line-matching task was presented, and 12 out of the 18 trials the confederates unanimously answered incorrectly. In all trials the naive participant sat in the last but one position.

Results: The rate of conformity was 25.2% with 14 participants not conforming in any of the critical trials, and three conforming in all 12. No systematic relation was found between conformity rate and duration of club membership, ruling out an in-group effect.

Conclusion: the rate is much the same as the average conformity rate among the Americans in the same experimental setting. Although Asch reported 36.8%, some researchers may expect that it was a product of the McCarthy era.

Question 9

how does takano and sogon link to the impact of culture on behaviour?

Answer 9

This study on conformity among Japanese college students in a replication of Asch’s classic experiment provides valuable insights into the influence of culture on behavior and cognition. Despite cultural differences between American and Japanese societies, the observed conformity rate of 25.2% among Japanese participants aligns closely with the average conformity rate reported among Americans in similar experimental settings. This suggests that while cultural factors may shape social norms and attitudes towards conformity, fundamental cognitive processes underlying conformity may exhibit cross-cultural universality. However, the choice of non-sports college clubs, characterized by less strict vertical discipline, reflects an acknowledgment of cultural nuances in group dynamics. Understanding how cultural contexts modulate behavioral responses to social pressure enriches our understanding of the complex interplay between culture, cognition, and behavior.

Question 10

Kearins

Cultural Impact on Behaviour and Cognition

Answer 10

Aim: Kearins (1981) aimed to investigate the effect of cultural background on memory performance by comparing Indigenous Australian adolescents from the desert region with white Australian adolescents.

Procedure: Kearins conducted a quasi-experiment with a sample of 44 Indigenous Australian adolescents aged 12-16 and 44 white Australian adolescents of similar age and sex distribution. Participants were asked to memorize and then reconstruct arrays of objects placed on a board outdoors. Four variations of the task were employed, involving artificial and natural objects arranged in different ways.

Findings: Indigenous Australian children outperformed white Australian children in all tasks, demonstrating better memory recall for object placement. The difference was particularly pronounced in tasks involving natural objects. Kearins noted that Indigenous Australian children showed efficient and deliberate behavior during the task, whereas white Australian children exhibited more distraction and uncertainty, especially with non-labeled objects.

Conclusion: Kearins concluded that Indigenous Australian children’s superior memory performance could be attributed to their upbringing in a harsh desert environment, which likely rewarded their ability to encode information visually. This adaptation may stem from their ancestral survival needs and traditional lifestyle, rather than genetic factors. The study suggests that cultural background influences cognitive processes, with environmental demands shaping cognitive strategies.

Question 11

how does Kearins link to the impact of culture on behaviour?

Cultural origins on behaviour and cognition

Answer 11

This study underscores the significant impact of culture on behavior and cognition. It highlights how cultural practices and environmental conditions can mould cognitive processes, such as memory encoding and retrieval strategies. The observed differences between Indigenous Australian and white Australian adolescents suggest that cultural upbringing and cultural norms play a crucial role in shaping cognitive abilities. Understanding these cultural influences is essential for appreciating the diversity of human cognition and behaviour across different populations.

Question 12

Holistic evaluation for culture and the the impact on behaviour and cognition

Answer 12

• many studies are rather artificial
• it is difficult to know whether priming is actually successful
• it is not possible to isolate culture as a variable
• culture is dynamic, so older research may no longer be relevant; lacks temporal validity

Question 14

What are Hofstedes cultural dimensions?

Answer 14

Hofstede (1973) first developed the theory that cultural dimensions shape the behaviour of whole cultures. The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values that affect the population’s behaviour and cognition could be analysed at the country level: individualism, collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance; masculinity and femininity; long-term and short-term orientation and indulgence vs. restraint. Hofstede concluded that most of these cultural dimensions could be used universally to describe the norms for behaviour in that culture.

Question 15

Long term orientation vs short term orientation: Cultural dimensions

Answer 15

This was developed to try to explain the differences between Western and Eastern societies: long term orientation is characterised by persistence, ordering relationships by status and thrift (carefulness with money). Short term orientation means valuing personal steadfastness and stability, protecting your reputation/ keeping face

Question 16

Individualism vs collectivism: cultural dimensions

Answer 16

In individualist societies, the ties between individuals are lose: everyone is expected to look after themselves. In collectivist societies, from birth onwards, people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families, which provide support and protection. However, if an individual does not live up to the norms of the family or the larger social group, the result can sometimes be severe.

Question 17

What should we avoid when studying cultural dimensions?

Answer 17

Hofstede proposed that we should aim to avoid the ecological fallacy, this is where it should not be assumed that two members from two different cultures must be different from one another, or that a single member of a culture will always demonstrate the dimensions which are the norm of that culture.

Question 18

Chen et al (cultural dimensions)

Answer 18

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of Confucian Work Dynamism, specifically Long-term Orientation, on individuals’ buying habits in a cross-cultural context.

Procedure: The study involved 149 bi-cultural participants from a Singaporean university, randomly assigned to conditions. Participants were primed to make either their Singaporean or American identity more salient by viewing a collage of culturally emblematic images and recalling them. Following priming, participants were presented with a shopping scenario to purchase a novel online. They were informed about the standard delivery cost and duration, as well as the option to pay extra for expedited delivery. Participants were asked to indicate how much they were willing to pay for one-day delivery. Lastly, participants listed the first three politicians that came to mind.

Findings: Participants whose Western cultural values were primed showed a higher willingness to pay for immediate consumption compared to those whose Eastern cultural values were primed, indicating the influence of Long and Short term orientation on online shopping behavior. Furthermore, participants listed politicians relevant to the culture they were primed for, suggesting that the priming remained effective throughout the study.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that Long-term Orientation, influences individuals’ online shopping behavior. Priming individuals with culturally salient cues led to differences in willingness to pay for expedited delivery, reflecting cultural values related to immediate consumption. Additionally, the persistence of cultural priming across tasks underscores its impact on behavior in cross-cultural contexts.

Question 19

Evaluation for Chen et al

Answer 19

The final test on politicians allowed the researchers to determine that the priming had, in fact, been successful and most likely affected the participants’ decisions.

The fact that the study took place in Singapore may be a confounding variable. In the original study, the influence on the American primed group was less significant than the Singaporean primed group.

The study was naturalistic; that is, the scenario was done online and this is how most of the students would purchase a book.

However, since the study was done online, this means that it is difficult to control variables - such as potential help from others or other distracters in the environment.

The study is highly standardized and could be replicated in order to establish thereliabilityof the findings.

Question 20

Chen et al link to social identity theory

Answer 20

more salient to one culture meant that they would self-identify to that culture more than the other, and therefore categorise themselves with that culture, therefore adopt the behaviours of that culture.

Question 21

chen et al link to cultural dimensions

Answer 21

the priming to make them more salient of either their American or Singaporean culture meant that they internalised that specific culture, the study shows how long term and short term orientation varies from different cultures (individualistic vs collectivistic)

Question 22

Takano and Sogon evaluation

Answer 22

• a meta-analysis was used of previous research to discern the difference in attitudes of Americans and Japanese, but also between Japanese and other supposedly collectivist cultures. this ensured a strong theoretical background to their study
• the participants were Japanese and residents in Japan, so there is a slim chance they already knew of the collectivist stereotype of the Japanese
• Participants were mainly from one university in the capital city; the conformity rates may have been different in other parts of the country
• lacks mundane realism (ecological validity)

Question 23

Kearins evaluation

Answer 23

The sample is quasi, the independent variable cannot be manipulated, therefore the findings are purely correlational in nature
It is difficult to know what exactly is the reason for this difference as the indigenous children were not brought up within the desert; but it is likely that the first-generation parents have raised their children in a way that reflects the traditional lifestyle and values

Question 24

Berry: cultural dimensions

Answer 24

Aim: Berry’s research aimed to measure the level of conformity across different cultural groups using a version of the Asch Paradigm. Specifically, the study sought to investigate how collectivistic and individualistic cultural orientations influence conformity behavior.

Procedure: The study involved three distinct cultural groups: the Temne of Sierra Leone (rice farming society), the Inuit people of Baffin Island in Canada (hunting and fishing society), and Scots as a reference group. Each group comprised individuals living a traditional lifestyle and those in transition to Western education or employment. Approximately 120 participants were included in each group. Participants were individually brought into a room and presented with a set of nine lines. They were asked to match a line below that most closely resembled the line at the top. After two practice trials, participants were given instructions suggesting the majority opinion of their cultural group regarding line length. Subsequent trials involved incorrect responses, with the dependent variable being the deviation from the correct line.

Findings: The Temne, a collectivistic culture, exhibited a higher rate of conformity when told what other Temne believed, even when incorrect. In contrast, the Inuit,being a more individualistic culture, demonstrated lower conformity rates compared to the Scots, an individualistic culture. Notably, there was no significant difference in conformity rates within groups (transition groups exhibited similar) , indicating that exposure to Western culture did not impact conformity behavior.

Conclusion: Berry’s study highlights the influence of cultural dimensions, such as collectivism and individualism, on conformity behavior. The Temne’s higher conformity rates suggest a stronger adherence to group norms and consensus, characteristic of collectivistic cultures. Conversely, the Inuit’s lower conformity rates align with their cultural emphasis on self-reliance and independence. The absence of significant differences within groups suggests that cultural orientations may exert a consistent influence on behavior regardless of exposure to Western culture.

Question 25

Evaluation of Berry’s Study

Answer 25

Lacks mundane realism (ecological validity)
Quasi experiment; there could not be random allocation to conditions and therefore causality could not be determined from this experiment
May lack temporal validity due to a more globalised world.
It is important not to conform to the ecological fallacy

Question 26

How does berrys study show how cultural dimensions impact behaviour and cognition?

Answer 26

This study underscores how cultural dimensions impact behavior and cognition. The differential conformity rates observed among the Temne, Inuit, and Scots reflect the influence of collectivistic and individualistic cultural orientations on social conformity. Cultural norms and values shape individuals’ responses to social influence, with collectivistic cultures emphasizing group harmony and consensus, leading to higher conformity rates. While this would seem to reflect that cultural dimensions influence behaviour, we cannot determine whether the participants in Berrys study were truly salient of their cultural dimensions.

Question 27

Holistic evaluation for cultural dimensions

Answer 27

• there is difficulty with the construct of a cultural dimension and therefore difficult to actually measure its effect on behaviour
• raises the question os stereotyping and conformation bias (research bias)
• research is often artificial- lacks research under natural conditions
• it can be seen to just be another form of stereotyping

Question 28

What is enculturation?

Answer 28

Enculturation is the process of how we adopt the behaviours that are the norm for our culture.

A significant part of the development of our identity is the learning and maintenance of the necessary and appropriate behaviours and norms of our own culture.

Question 29

How does enculturation happen?

Answer 29

An understanding of the values, language and expectations of the culture are bestowed onto the child through interactions with gatekeepers (e.g. parents, media and school)

Enculturation is a constant process that reinforces your identity as a member of your culture.

Enculturation results in the development of cultural schema. One behaviour which is enculturated is gender roles

• it may be a result of direct tuition
• social cognitive theory

Question 30

Fagot: impact of enculturation on behaviour and cognition

Answer 30

Aim: Fagot’s research aimed to investigate the role of parental behavior in gender-role development, specifically focusing on how parents communicate gender-specific expectations to their children through subtle cues and responses.

Procedure: The study comprised 24 families with one child each, aged between 20 and 24 months. Twelve families had a boy, and twelve had a girl. Observers used a checklist to record child behaviors and parental reactions during five 60-minute observations over five weeks. Time sampling was employed, noting child behaviors and parental responses every 60 seconds. Inter-coder reliability was established between two observers. After observations, parents rated behaviors as appropriate for boys, girls, or neutral and filled out a questionnaire on sex role socialization.

Findings: Parents exhibited gender-specific responses to their children’s behaviors. Boys were more likely to be left alone, received more positive responses when playing with blocks, and fewer negative responses when manipulating objects. Conversely, girls received more positive responses when playing with dolls and asking for help but were criticized more during large motor activities. Fathers were more concerned with sex-typing, and both parents found more behaviors appropriate for girls than boys. Parents reacted more favorably to same-sex-preferred behaviors and were more likely to respond positively to girls engaging in adult-oriented, dependent behavior.

Conclusion: Fagot’s study highlights how parents subtly communicate gender-role expectations to their children through their responses and reactions. Gender-specific responses were evident, with boys and girls receiving differential treatment based on societal norms and expectations. Moreover, parents exhibited unconscious biases in their reactions, suggesting that they may not be fully aware of the methods they use to socialize their children into gender-specific roles.

Question 31

Evaluation of Fagots study

Answer 31

• high ecological validity
• high inter rater reliability
• Suffers from sampling bias; very small sample, all participants were white and American
• overt observation, so demand characteristics may have been exhibited

Question 32

Wood (2002): impact of enculturation of behaviour and cognition

Answer 32

Aim: The study aimed to examine gender role enculturation through parental influence and toy selection. Specifically, it sought to investigate how children’s play behavior with parents and other adults relates to gender-specific toy preferences and parental categorization of toys as masculine, feminine, or neutral.

Procedure: The study involved a sample of 48 children aged 24 to 72 months, evenly divided between boys and girls. Children participated in three play sessions, each lasting fifteen minutes, with either their own parent, another child’s parent, or a non-parent adult. The play sessions took place in the child’s preschool or home. During the sessions, children and adults interacted with a set of 15 toys arranged in a line, including five stereotypically boy toys, five stereotypically girl toys, and five gender-neutral toys. The amount of time spent playing with gender-specific toys was recorded for each child. After the session, adults completed a “gender sorting task,” categorizing each toy as masculine, feminine, or neutral.

Findings: The gender-sorting task revealed that adults did not always agree with traditional categorizations of some toys, indicating a shift in perceived toy functions. However, regardless of parental sorting, boys spent most of their playtime with masculine toys. In contrast, girls displayed greater flexibility in their toy choices, engaging with toys across various categories. This suggests that girls may not be as strongly influenced by traditional gender norms in toy selection as boys.

Conclusion: The study highlights the influence of parental behavior and social context on children’s gender role enculturation and toy preferences. Despite evolving perceptions of toy categorizations by adults, boys tend to adhere more closely to traditional gender stereotypes in their play behavior, favoring masculine toys. In contrast, girls demonstrate more flexibility in toy selection, suggesting a potential shift away from strict adherence to traditional gender roles. These findings underscore the complex interplay between parental influence, socialization, and individual agency in shaping children’s gender identity and behavior.

Question 33

How does woods study display the effects of enculturation on cognition?

Answer 33

This study offers valuable insights into the effects of enculturation on behavior and cognition, particularly regarding gender role development and toy preferences. Through interactions with parents and other adults, children learn societal norms and expectations surrounding gender-specific behaviors and toy choices. The findings suggest that children’s play behavior is influenced by parental categorization of toys as masculine, feminine, or neutral, reflecting cultural values and gender norms transmitted through enculturation. Moreover, the observed differences in toy preferences between boys and girls underscore the impact of socialization processes on shaping gender identity and behavior. Understanding how enculturation shapes behavior and cognition, particularly in the context of gender roles, enhances our comprehension of the complex interplay between culture, socialization, and individual development. It highlights the importance of considering cultural influences in examining and interpreting human behavior and cognitive processes.

Question 34

Evaluation of Woods study

Answer 34

• quasi experiment which made use of naturalistic observation; it has a very high ecological validity
• It is a standardised observation; allowing for it to be highly reliable
• lack of control over confounding variables , although there is an attempt to control for the age/ education of the adults who weren’t parents of the children
• The observation was overt, and therefore the participants may have exhibited demand characteristics as they knew that they were being watched
• it is believed that children develop gender role identities by aged 4, these children were all younger so should not have predefined schemas for “gendered toys”
• It was a WEIRD study and conducted in canada (sampling bias), so may be difficult to generalise

Question 35

Holistic evaluation for research into enculturation

Answer 35

• Difficulty of measuring enculturation- lack of ecological or internal validity
• Many of the studies are rather old and may lack temporal validity
• There is no measure of biological factors in many of these studies- if it is difficult to know which behaviours are learned and which may be pre-programmed genetically
• Studies are often correlational, leading to the question of bidirectional ambiguity
• Although there are some striking differences- what is more striking is that gender is rather consistent around the world. The similarities are more notable than the differences. If there are differences in gender norms and values this is more often the result of local sources.
• There is the problem of the operationalisation of culture as a variable in a globalised world and internet-connected world
• Lack of support for the concept of self-socialisation- that is , that children actively seek out information about their gender, is vague and unmeasurable

Question 36

What is acculturation?

Answer 36

Acculturation is the process of changing and assimilating into a different culture from the original one we were born into.

Acculturation is needed if we stay for any extended length of time in another culture, and especially if we make our home there.

It involves learning the language, understanding the cultural norms and where possible conforming to them.

Question 37

The theory of acculturation

Answer 37

• The theory of acculturation, which was created by Berry (2008), argues that the process of acculturation leads to cultural and psychological changes in both parties
• Instead of one rather homogenous global society ensuing, as the ‘non-dominant group’ (minority group) is absorbed into the dominant culture, the behaviours of those engaged in acculturation are varied and complex, as acculturation is negotiated through a mutual reciprocal process
• He identified four acculturation strategies used by the non-dominant group

Question 38

What are the acculturation strategies?

Answer 38

1. Assimilation

When individuals do not wish to maintain their own culture and seek daily interactions with people from the dominant culture.

2. Separation

When individuals wish to maintain their own culture and do not wish to integrate, therefore they avoid contact with the dominant culture. This can only be pursued if the dominant culture does not impose marginalisation or assimilation.

3. Integration

When individuals wish to interact with the dominant culture and be an integral part of this culture, while maintaining their own identity as well. Integrated individuals are bicultural. This can only be pursued if the dominant culture does not impose marginalisation or assimilation.

4. Marginalisation

Often follows enforced cultural loss, and is when individuals have no interest in integration or assimilation into the dominant culture, even though they have lost their own.

Question 39

What are the effects of acculturation?

Answer 39

If the dominant and non-dominant cultures do not share the same preferences for the choice of acculturation strategy, then inconsistencies and conflicts between these various acculturation preferences create difficulty, usually for acculturating individuals. (But can also apply to members of the dominant culture)

1. Acculturative stress

Generally, when acculturation experiences cause problems for acculturating individuals or conflict between acculturating groups, we observe the phenomenon of acculturative stress.

2. Acculturation Gaps

These are differences in understanding and values between parents and children as they go through the process of acculturation.

This occurs when parents have a different acculturation strategy from their children.

3. Reverse culture shock

The feeling of surprise, disorientation, confusion, alienation or frustration experienced when people return to their home after living in another culture and finding that they do not fit in as they once did.

Question 40

Miranda and matheny: impact of enculturation on behaviour and cognition

Answer 40

Aim: To see which factors in the lives of Latino Immigrants to the United States would decrease the level of acculturative stress

Procedure: A random sample of 197 members of two social services agencies completed a questionnaire and tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping strategies for stress

Findings: The study suggests that immigrants with effective coping strategies, good proficiency in English, and a strong family structure were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less likely to experience acculturative stress and show a higher level of acculturation

Conclusion: The study shows that many protective factors may influence the extent to which an individual acculturates and the effect that this will have on mental health.

Question 41

Evaluation of Miranda and Matheny

Answer 41

• Valuable as it shows that many protective factors can aid in acculturation; this allows us to ensure that immigrants to America are given help to enhance their proficiency in English to reduce their acculturative stress
• Encourages the maintenance of a strong family structure
• Due to the use of questionnaires, only correlational data is collected
• It is very difficult to have a good construct validity when looking for indirect measures
• The questionnaire was taken in english; is their proficiency good enough to understand
• There are a large number of Spanish-speaking countries so it is very hard to generalise the results from this experiment

Question 42

Lueck and Wilson: impact of acculturation on cognition

Answer 42

Aim: The aim of the study was to investigate the variables that predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. Specifically, the researchers aimed to examine the impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.

Procedure: The study involved 2095 Asian Americans, including first-generation immigrants and those born in the US to immigrant parents, representing various Asian cultures. Semi-structured interviews were conducted by interviewers with similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds as the participants, either online or face-to-face. The interviews measured participants’ levels of acculturative stress and assessed the influence of various factors such as language proficiency, language preference, discrimination experiences, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status.

Findings: Among the 2095 participants, 1433 were found to have acculturative stress, comprising 70% of the sample. Bilingual language preference was associated with lower acculturative stress, indicating that individuals who could equally use both languages with friends were able to build supportive networks within and outside their community. Conversely, a preference for speaking English only was associated with higher acculturative stress. Experiences of negative treatment, including prejudice and harassment, significantly contributed to higher acculturative stress levels. Furthermore, sharing similar values and beliefs within the family and satisfaction with economic opportunities in the US were associated with lower acculturative stress.

Conclusion: The study highlights the complex interplay of various factors in predicting acculturative stress among Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. Bilingualism, positive family dynamics, and satisfaction with economic opportunities were protective factors against acculturative stress, while experiences of discrimination and language barriers contributed to higher stress levels. These findings underscore the importance of addressing social and cultural factors in supporting the well-being and adaptation of immigrant populations.

Question 43

How does lueck and wilson show the effect of acculturation on behaviour and cognition?

Answer 43

This study provides compelling evidence of the effects of acculturation on behavior and cognition among Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. The findings highlight how language proficiency, discrimination experiences, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status impact acculturative stress levels. Bilingual language preference emerged as a protective factor, facilitating the development of supportive networks and reducing stress. Conversely, experiences of discrimination and language barriers negatively affected mental well-being. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for designing interventions and support systems that promote positive adaptation and mitigate the negative effects of acculturation on behavior and cognition. It emphasizes the need for culturally sensitive approaches to address the challenges faced by immigrant communities during the acculturation process.

Question 44

Holistic evaluation of acculturation

Answer 44

• There is a problem with giving tests to immigrants, it is not only a question of whether they understand the vocabulary of the test but also how they interpret the questions
• More factors can influence individuals, other than acculturation; this incudes age of migration, length of residency, education, sexual orientation and religion
• There are several ethical considerations in acculturation research; it is important that participants are aware of their rights, this includes right to withdraw, informed consent, anonymity and right to withdraw, especially as some participants may be illegal immigrants
• It is very difficult to operationalise and measure the level of the four outcomes

Question 45

What is social identity theory?

Answer 45

• social identity theory argues that a person has not just one “personal self”, but rather several social selves that correspond to group membership
• according to the theory, we need to understand who we are and know our value in social contexts. this is why we categorise ourselves in terms of group membership

Question 46

What are the stages of social identity?

Answer 46

1. social categorisation

the first is social categorisation: the tendency to divide items and people into groups in order to better understand them- when this is done the similarities and differences become more radicalised (exaggerated)

• this categorisation gives rise to in groups (us) and out groups (them). Tajfel argues that even when people are randomly assigned to a group they automatically think of that group as their in group (us) and others as an out group (them)
• Tajfel found that when people are randomly assigned to a group- they see themselves as being similar in attitude and behaviour, and this is apparently enough for a bond to be formed among group members

2. social identification

this has emotional significance for us as our self esteem relies on our group membership

• once divided into the in group and the out group, self esteem is maintained by social comparison- the benefits of belonging to the in group rather than the out group

3. social comparison

Because our group identity is tied up with our self esteem we compare our group favourably with others and so it becomes the “in group” while others are the “out group” this can lead to negative stereotyping of the out group but this is not always the case, and therefore does not demonstrate a direct connection between social identity theory and prejudice and discrimination

Question 47

chen et al (social identity theory)

Answer 47

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of Confucian Work Dynamism, specifically Long-term Orientation, on individuals’ buying habits in a cross-cultural context.

Procedure: The study involved 149 bi-cultural participants from a Singaporean university, randomly assigned to conditions. Participants were primed to make either their Singaporean or American identity more salient by viewing a collage of culturally emblematic images and recalling them. Following priming, participants were presented with a shopping scenario to purchase a novel online. They were informed about the standard delivery cost and duration, as well as the option to pay extra for expedited delivery. Participants were asked to indicate how much they were willing to pay for one-day delivery. Lastly, participants listed the first three politicians that came to mind.

Findings: Participants whose Western cultural values were primed showed a higher willingness to pay for immediate consumption compared to those whose Eastern cultural values were primed, indicating the influence of Long and Short term orientation on online shopping behavior. Furthermore, participants listed politicians relevant to the culture they were primed for, suggesting that the priming remained effective throughout the study.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that Long-term Orientation, influences individuals’ online shopping behavior. Priming individuals with culturally salient cues led to differences in willingness to pay for expedited delivery, reflecting cultural values related to immediate consumption. Additionally, the persistence of cultural priming across tasks underscores its impact on behavior in cross-cultural contexts.

Question 48

Chen et al link to social identity theory

Answer 48

more salient to one culture meant that they would self-identify to that culture more than the other, and therefore categorise themselves with that culture, therefore adopt the behaviours of that culture.

Question 49

Sherif et al: Social identity theory

Answer 49

Aim:
Sherif aimed to investigate whether conflict between groups could be diminished by working together on a superordinate goal. He sought to understand how informal groups develop organization, attitudes (prejudice), and norms, while also testing the predictions of Realistic Conflict Theory.

Procedure:
The study involved 22 boys aged 11-12, randomly allocated to two groups, The Eagles and The Rattlers, at a summer camp in Robbers Cave State Park, Oklahoma. The boys engaged in various activities to bond and establish group identities. Conflict was introduced through competitive games and situations where one group benefited at the other’s expense. The researchers observed behavior, recorded data, and used cameras and microphones to ensure ecological validity.

Findings:
Initially, solidarity increased within each group, leading to hostility towards the other group. The boys displayed negative attitudes and engaged in hostile behaviors, confirming the emergence of conflict from group identity and competition for resources. However, introducing superordinate goals, such as cooperating to solve common problems, eased intergroup tension and reduced negative ratings and hostility between the groups.

Conclusion:
The study demonstrated how intergroup conflict and negative attitudes can arise from group identity and competition for resources. By introducing superordinate goals, the researchers successfully alleviated intergroup tension and hostility, highlighting the potential for cooperation to overcome intergroup conflict.

Question 50

How does Sherifs study prove social identity theory

Answer 50

Sherif’s study exemplifies key principles of Social Identity Theory, which posits that individuals derive part of their identity from their membership in social groups. The formation of group identities (The Eagles and The Rattlers) led to in-group favoritism and out-group derogation, reinforcing social categorization and intergroup bias. Additionally, the study highlights the role of intergroup competition and cooperation in shaping social identity and intergroup relations, illustrating how shared goals can mitigate intergroup conflict and promote positive intergroup attitudes.

Question 51

Sherif: evaluation

Answer 51

The study was a field experiment. As a result, the study was not artificial and had a high degree of ecological validity. However, because it was a field experiment, the researchers could not control extraneous variables; for example, the behaviors of the leaders or private conversations between the boys.

It is also questionable how the dependent variable was measured. The researchers used self-reports in order to measure the level of hostility after the boys had worked together to solve a problem - that is, in response to superordinate goals. However, in measuring the level of hostility after the superordinate goals, the results could be due to demand characteristics.

There are ethical concerns about the use of deception in this study. In addition, participants were not protected from physical and psychological harm. Sherif’s team noted symptoms of anxiety among some of the boys, including bedwetting, running away, and homesickness.
They did however allow two boys to leave early (right to withdraw)

The conflicts that exist among young children may not reflect real-life conflicts. This may be an over-simplified theory of the origins of ethnic, national, or regional conflict.

It is difficult to generalize the findings as the sample was made up of 12-year-old boys from a single culture and a particular socioeconomic class. There is sampling bias in the study.

Question 52

Evaluation of social identity theory

Answer 52

• Not much empirical evidence as studies are mainly lab based, so lack ecological validity
• Many of the tests arent generalisable and lack ecological validity
• the construct of salience and level of salience is very difficult to measure

Question 53

what is social cognitive theory

Answer 53

Social cognitive theory was developed mainly by Albert Bandura and suggests that behaviour is learned through observation and from the environment through the process of modelling and reinforcement- in other words, people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior.

The basic idea this theory provides is that we do not need to experience everything personally in order to learn. We can learn through observation.

Question 54

What is self effiacy in replation to SCT

Answer 54

Self efficacy is the expectation of personal success in a task, based on the view that one is in control of one’s actions and abilities.

Both of these are incorporated into SCT, which is a comprehensive theory of how humans act as agents and through their thoughts, beliefs and actions affect and are affected by their own environments and social systems. This process is called reciprocal determinism.

Question 55

What are the criterion needed for social learning to occur?

Answer 55

Bandura identified:
- Attention: in order to learn, observers must attend to the modelled behaviour.
- Retention: in order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must be able to remember features of behaviour
- Motivation: in order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must want to reproduce it and expect a certain outcome from the behaviour
- Potential: in order to reproduce an observed behaviour, observers must physically and/or mentally be able to carry out the behaviour
- Consistency: if the model behaves in a way that is consistent across situation- for example, always being brave- then the observer will be more likely to imitate the model than if the model behaves in different ways depending on the situation
- Identification with the model: there os a tendency to imitate models who are like us (in terms of age and gender)
- Liking the model: warm and friendly models are more likely to be imitated than cold, uncaring models

Question 56

what is the role of self efficacy in SCT?

Answer 56

• finally, social cognitive theory argues that learning is most likely to occur if the observer has high self-efficacy
• self-efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to succeed accomplishing a task. Bandura and other researchers have found individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to believe they can master challenging problems and they can recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments
• therefore, self efficacy plays a central role in whether a learner will imitate the behaviour of a model. Those who have low levels of self-efficacy will fear failure and are less likely to attempt imitating the behaviour of the model

Question 57

what will result in a high self efficacy?

Answer 57

• performance accomplishments (how successful we have been in the past)
• vicarious experience (watching other people persist in challenging tasks and experience success)
• verbal persuasion (other peoples encouragement)
• physiological arousal

Question 58

what are the factors affecting social cognitive theory

Answer 58

• the model stands out in contrast to other models
• the models behaviour must be consistent
• the model is liked and respected by the observer
• the observer perceives a similarity between him/herself and the model
• the models behaviour is reinforced

Question 59

What is Banduras study (bashing bobo)

Answer 59

Aim:
The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of exposure to aggressive and non-aggressive adult models on children’s subsequent behavior, specifically focusing on imitation of aggressive acts and gender differences in imitation behavior.

Procedure:
Thirty-six boys and thirty-six girls, aged between 37 and 69 months with a mean age of 52 months, were selected for the study. The children were pre-tested for their levels of aggression using rating scales observed by trained observers. The study comprised three major conditions: a control group, a group exposed to an aggressive adult model, and a group exposed to a passive adult model. Each condition included sub-groups based on the gender of the child and the gender of the model they were exposed to. This resulted in a total of eight experimental groups.

During the experiment, children were individually taken to an experimental room with attractive toys. An adult model, either displaying aggressive behavior or engaging in non-aggressive play, was placed in the opposite corner of the room. In the aggressive condition, the adult model displayed scripted physical and verbal aggression towards an inflatable doll (Bobo). After exposure, the children were subjected to mild aggression arousal and then placed in another room with various toys, including both aggressive and non-aggressive options. Their behavior was observed through a one-way mirror and recorded at five-second intervals.

Findings:
The results indicated that children who were exposed to an aggressive adult model exhibited more aggressive acts compared to those who were exposed to a non-aggressive model. Additionally, boys demonstrated more aggressive behavior than girls across all conditions. In the aggressive conditions, boys imitated more physical aggression when the model was male, while girls imitated more verbal aggression when the model was female.

Conclusion:
The findings support the hypothesis that children are likely to imitate aggressive behavior modeled by adults. Moreover, gender differences were observed in the type of aggression imitated, with boys displaying more physical aggression and girls exhibiting more verbal aggression. These results highlight the role of observational learning in shaping children’s behavior and the influence of gender on imitation tendencies.

Question 60

how does banduras study provide support for SCT?

Answer 60

This study provides empirical evidence supporting the principles of Social Learning Theory proposed by Albert Bandura. According to Social Learning Theory, individuals learn by observing the behavior of others and imitating those behaviors, especially when they are reinforced. In this study, children who were exposed to aggressive adult models demonstrated higher levels of aggressive behavior themselves, indicating observational learning and imitation. This supports the idea that behavior can be acquired through modeling and observation of others, a central tenet of Social Learning Theory. Furthermore, the gender-specific patterns of imitation observed in the study, where boys imitated more physical aggression and girls imitated more verbal aggression, align with the theory’s emphasis on the role of social influences, including gender roles, in shaping behavior. Overall, this study provides empirical support for the mechanisms proposed by Social Learning Theory in explaining how behavior is learned and influenced by social factors.

Question 61

evaluation for banduras study

Answer 61

• highly artificial environment; low ecological validity
• highly unethical as this perceived violence from an adult role model may lead to this becoming a learnt behaviour due to the young age of participants and lack of understanding of good and bad
  Construct validity:
• one has to question the actual aggression that was observed. does this aggression against a bobo doll indicate learned aggression in general, or is it highly specific to this situation?

Question 62

Joy Kimball and Zabrach(SCT)

Answer 62

Aim:
The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of television exposure on children’s aggressive behavior through a longitudinal natural experiment. Specifically, the researchers aimed to compare changes in aggressive behavior among elementary school children in a town without television reception (Notel) before and after the introduction of television, compared to children in towns already exposed to television programming.

Procedure:
The study was conducted in three small towns in British Columbia, Canada. In 1973, Notel did not have television reception, while the other two towns already had access to television. In 1975, Notel received one Canadian channel. The researchers observed physically and verbally aggressive behavior displayed by elementary school children on the playground in each town. A sample of 120 children participated in the study, with informed consent obtained from parents. Teacher and peer ratings of aggressive behavior, as well as information about television viewing habits, were collected. The study focused on comparing changes in aggressive behavior over time in Notel versus the other towns.

Findings:
The results revealed a significant increase in aggressive behavior among children in Notel from 1973 to 1975 following the introduction of television reception, while the aggressive behavior of children in the other two towns did not change significantly over the same period. Peer and teacher ratings supported these findings. Additionally, it was observed that males exhibited more physical aggression than females. Surprisingly, there were no differences in television viewing habits between aggressive and less aggressive children. The researchers concluded that the increased aggression in Notel children was likely due to heightened arousal resulting from their lack of familiarity with television.

Conclusion:
The study demonstrates a causal link between television exposure and increased aggressive behavior among children, as evidenced by the significant rise in aggression observed in Notel following the introduction of television reception. This suggests that television viewing may contribute to aggressive behavior in children, potentially due to heightened arousal associated with exposure to unfamiliar stimuli. Furthermore, the findings underscore the importance of considering environmental factors, such as television access, in understanding and addressing aggressive behavior in children.

Question 63

How does Joy Kimball and Zabrack provide support for social learning theory?

Answer 63

This study aligns with Social Learning Theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, which emphasizes the role of observational learning and imitation in shaping behavior. The increase in aggressive behavior among children in Notel following the introduction of television supports the idea that exposure to aggressive models, as portrayed on television, can influence children’s behavior through observational learning. According to Social Learning Theory, children may imitate aggressive behaviors they observe on television, particularly if those behaviors are reinforced or glamorized. Thus, the findings of this study provide empirical support for the principles of Social Learning Theory in explaining the impact of television exposure on children’s aggressive behavior.

Question 64

Evaluation for Joy kimball and Zabrach

Answer 64

• lack of control over how much TV each child watches
  
  • improved by monitoring, or asking parents to note down the times
• potential research bias through participant observation
  
  • could be eliminated by observing children at recess through cameras installed in playground rather than actually interacting with the children
• ethically questionable about use of children and parents providing consent on their behalf and no right to withdraw
• very high ecological validity to to nature of experiment; but low generalisability
• low repeatability
• low temporal validity

Question 65

what are stereotypes?

Answer 65

Stereotypes are fixed beliefs about a particular group of people that are also applied to any one member of that group. The use of stereotypes is one way in which we categorise and simplify our social world. However, they can also be negative and lead to prejudice against individuals and groups.

• often acquired indirectly from other people and social norms and not from personal experience.
• they are schemas that help us understand the world around us
• stereotypes can be positive or negative
• tend to be very general in nature and individuals acknowledge that they cannot be applied to all members of the group. The stereotype serves as heuristic- the person is like this until proven otherwise
• prone to conformation bias- that is, we tend to see examples- whether on the street, in print or on television- that confirm our stereotypes, and we tend to ignore evidence that contradicts them

Question 66

what is prejudice?

Answer 66

• when we make a judgement about individuals with very little information about them except for group membership
• prejudice is an attitude- which means that cognition (schema) is combined with emotion- in this case, often liking or disliking the individual
• prejudice is usually negative

Question 67

what is discrimination?

Answer 67

Discrimination is a behaviour- based on stereotyping and prejudice

Question 68

what is conformation bias with relation to stereotyping?

Answer 68

Conformation bias is when we tend to notice evidence that supports what we already believe. So, if I believe that a certain group of people are criminals, I will notice news reports of this group committing crimes and this will strengthen my belief. I will also discount positive or contrary evidence about the group. Conformation bias makes stereotypes resistant to change.

Question 69

What are congitive misers?

Answer 69

Fiske (2004) developed the ‘cognitive miser’ theory that stereotyping allows us to shortcut our thinking processes.

This relates to Tajfel et al.’s (1971) minimal paradigms explanation and Tajfel and Turner’s (1979) social identity theory explanation of the processes of social categorisation.

Social categorisation is a way of organising information about people in order to identify them quickly. When we do so, we exaggerate the differences between the groups and the similarities of things (and people) in the same group, and this can lead to stereotying.

Perdue et al. (1990) argue that social categorisation is responsible for the formation of stereotypes, through language. They argue that it is the language we use when speaking about in-groups and out-groups that may lead to prejudice.

Stereotypes can also be formed as a means of taking on the in-groups social representation of the out-group.

Question 70

what isthe illusory correlation?

Answer 70

• a simple error of association
  
  • what is meant by this is that there is an incorrect conclusion that 2 events that occur at the same time are related
• unusual events are distinctive, so people notice them more
• the increased attention leads to stronger/ more effective coding
• this strengthens the perception that the events are associated

Question 71

Limitations of the illusory correlation?

Answer 71

• Evidence that impressions disappears suggest that stereotypes are more linked to memory
• Cognitive overload negates illusory correlation as it prevents association
• Isolated from Biological and Cognitive approaches

Question 72

Rogers and Frantz

Stereotyping

Answer 72

Aim:
Rogers and Frantz aimed to investigate the relationship between length of residence in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and attitudes of European settlers towards Africans. They hypothesized that as the length of residence increased, attitudes would become more conservative, favoring the maintenance of racial segregation.

Procedure:
The study surveyed 500 white Europeans, aged 20 and above, residing in Southern Rhodesia for varying lengths of time. The sample was stratified by demographics such as sex, country of birth, age, and length of residence. Participants responded to a Likert scale survey containing sixty-six examples of racially segregated laws and customs. Response choices ranged from favoring the status quo to advocating for discontinuation of segregation laws.

Findings:
The mean score of the sample indicated a preference for maintaining the status quo, with almost 70% of participants falling below a mean score of 3.00. Age, sex, district of residence, and income showed no significant correlation with attitudes towards race. However, significant correlations were found with country of birth, occupation, length of schooling, religious affiliation, political party preference, and length of residence. New arrivals exhibited less conservative attitudes compared to long-term residents.

Conclusion:
The study concluded that attitudes of European settlers in Southern Rhodesia towards Africans became more conservative with increased length of residence. Newcomers were less inclined to support racial segregation compared to long-term residents, suggesting that attitudes shifted towards the norm of the European population over time. This indicates a process of socialization and assimilation, where newcomers adopted the stereotypes and attitudes of the dominant group as they identified with their new social role.

Question 73

Rogers and Frantz evaluation

Answer 73

This study does support the idea that we conform to social roles and thus stereotype or develop attitudes towards out groups.

First, the sample was very large and highly representative. This means that it is highly likely that this could be generalised to the remaining members of this population without any problem. However, because this is qualitative in nature, it is questionable to what extent this study could be transferred to other situations. For example, could we apply this research to people moving to the United States, the Czech Republic or Singapore? Other research has supported the theory that we adopt the stereotypes about out groups that are held by our in-group.

One of the limitations of this study is that it was not longitudinal, it was cross sectional (held at one point in time). Therefore researchers arent able to determine whether individuals attitudes changed over time.

Question 74

Hamilton and Gifford

Stereotyping

Answer 74

Aim:
Hamilton & Gifford aimed to investigate how group size and the valence of information influence the formation of stereotypes among American undergraduates.

Procedure:
Forty American undergraduates, evenly split between genders, participated in the experiment. They were shown slides containing statements about members of two groups, Group A and Group B, with Group A being twice as large as Group B. Each statement was either positive or negative, with equal proportions of positive and negative comments for both groups. Participants were informed of the size difference between the groups before the experiment began. After viewing the slides, participants ranked members of each group on various traits. Then, they were given a booklet where they had to identify the group to which a statement belonged and indicate the number of “undesirable” statements for each group. Half of the participants completed the booklet before the trait ranking task to avoid interference effects.

Findings:
On trait ratings, Group A was rated higher for positive traits and lower for negative traits compared to Group B. In the booklet task, participants recalled more positive traits for Group A than for Group B and more negative traits for Group B than for Group A. However, participants overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group compared to the majority group, although this difference was not statistically significant.

Conclusion:
Hamilton & Gifford concluded that group size and valence of information influenced the formation of stereotypes among participants. The minority group (Group B) was subject to more negative stereotyping, possibly due to their smaller size, leading to their negative behaviors being more salient and perceived as representative of the group. This study sheds light on the mechanisms underlying stereotype formation and highlights the tendency to overattribute negative traits to minority groups. Additionally, the findings have practical implications, such as understanding how stereotypes affect perceptions in various contexts, including healthcare settings.

Question 75

Evaluation for hamilton and guifford

Answer 75

Ethnocentric: western, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic , as it is done on american undergraduates. Therefore this study is not generalisable

Question 76

what are the main effects of stereotypes

Answer 76

1. stereotype threat
2. the negative consequences of positive stereotypes
3. memory distortion

Question 77

What is stereotype threat?

Answer 77

Stereotype threat is the fear that you will confirm a negative stereotype about a group that you belong to. When people are faced with a stereotype threat, they often get nervous and perform worse, thus confirming the stereotype.

• stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm the stereotype

Question 78

Steele and Aronson (stereotype threat)

Answer 78

A- The aim of the study was to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans. Steele & Aronson defined stereotype threat asbeing at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group.

P- The sample was made up of 114 male and female, black and white undergraduates from Stanford University. There were two independent variables in the study: the race of the participant and the test descriptions. The participants were given a standardized test of verbal ability - similar to the SAT - and were told one of two things: 1. It is a test to diagnose your intellectual ability; 2. it is a test of your problem-solving skills; In the first condition, the focus was on “verbal ability”; in the second condition, it was on “problem-solving.” Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions; however, they made sure that there were equal numbers of participants in each condition.

F- African Americans did poorly when they believed that the test was a test of their ability, but did just as well as the white Americans when they believed that it was a test of their problem-solving skills. In other words, African American participants performed less well than their white counterparts in the stereotype threat condition, but in the non-threat condition, their performance equalled that of their white counterparts.

Question 79

Steele and Aronson evaluation

Answer 79

• The sample was made up of Stanford University students, so itmay not be representativeand thus difficult to generalise the findings.
• The study made use of an independent sample design. Verbal scores from participants’ SATs were collected prior to the study in order to make sure that they were all within the norm of verbal performance. In this way, participant variability was minimized. However, a matched-pairs design may have been a better approach.
• Although there is a difference between the two average scores, it does not necessarily mean that the participants experienced stereotype threat. Their salience about their racial identity and their levels of stress during the exam were not measured in this first variation of the experiment. Later variations of the experiment showed, however, that this was most probably the case.

Question 80

Payne

effecs of stereotypes- memory distortion

The individual and the group

Answer 80

A-Payne et al (2001) researched how stereotyping can affect one’s ability to recognize whether an item is a weapon or not.
P- Payne et al used a sample of 32 non-Black undergraduates – including 25 women and 7 men. The participants were given the IAT with two black male and two white male faces; four photographs of hand tools (2 types of pliers, wrench, drill), and four photographs of guns.

The participants first did a practice round with 48 trials just identifying tools vs. weapons, without the faces. This was to make sure that the participants were familiar with the keyboard and how to take the test, as well as able to identify the different images. Error rates were nearly zero.

In the next round, the participants were told that the test tested their speed and accuracy. They were told that they would see a face briefly flashed on the monitor, followed by a second image. They were instructed to indicate whether the second image was a weapon or a tool by pressing keys on the computer. They were given 500 milliseconds to respond before they were locked out of the screen. Each participant carried out 192 trials.

F- The rate of errors was 29%; the participants misidentified tools more often than misidentifying weapons. In addition, participants were more likely to incorrectly identify a tool as a gun when the target was primed with a Black face, compared to a White face. The race of the prime did not affect the likelihood of misperceiving the gun as a tool.

Question 81

Evaluation for payne (effects of stereotyping)

Answer 81

A pilot studywas done with the same procedure, but without the time pressure; the error rate was only 6% with no clear evidence of the effect of the stereotype. It appears that time pressure – a form of high cognitive load – played a key role in why the stereotype had such an effect.

The study is highly artificial and has low ecological validity. It is not clear if this reflects what actually happens in the field.

The study has high internal validityand may be replicated to determine the reliability of the results.

The participants carried out many trials. It is possible that fatigue effects are responsible for the results. But this is why it is important to compare this data to the pilot study, in which such effects did not play a significant role.

Question 82

What is globalisation?

Answer 82

Globalisation is the movement towards a unifying global culture and set of values (these values include: freedom of choice, individual rights, openness to change and tolerance of differences) based on individualism, free market economics and trade.

Globalisation is due to four main reasons:

• increased travel
• transnational companies with labour standards
• international marketing and access to goods
• flow of information e.g. due to the Internet and TV

Question 83

Local vs global culture

Answer 83

• Delocalisation
  
  • As your exposure to this global culture, then you will experience the move away from your local culture, into this new global culture this can lead to identity confusion.
• Collectivist cultures vs Individualist cultures
  
  • Effects on mental health (from the dichotomy of these two differing cultural identities)
    
    • Acculturative stress
    • Lower levels of subjective well-being

Question 84

ogihara and uchida (local vs global culture link)

Answer 84

• due to this introduction of the competing dichotomy of the collectivist Japanese culture, and individualist Global culture, there has been a change (decrease) in the subjective well-being of the subjects

Question 85

Becker (local vs global culture link)

HL Extension- Globalisation

Answer 85

• due to this paradigm shift of the views of the girls on the ideal body type after the introduction of television and so the global culture, this led to eating disorders in the girls

Question 86

holistic evaluation for local vs global culture

Answer 86

• hard to measure the move from local culture to global culture, and even harder to measure the extent of this.
• difficult to design experiments to measure this
• data collected is mainly self-report through questionnaires or interviews; so demand characteristics are expected to be common. social desirability bias is rife
• different people respond differently to the move from localised cultures to the new global culture (highly subjective experience)
• different effects of globalisation
• can depend on how they acculturate to the new global culture (i.e. which methods they choose)
• studies are sometimes longitudinal, but often are only cross-sectional

Question 87

effects of globalisation?

Answer 87

• Individuals in the global culture, who are delocalised, need to work out a role for themselves in the new culture and develop a new cultural identity. If they are unable to successfully do this, then they undergo identity confusion. This can lead to mental health disorders.
  
  • low subjective-well being
  • eating disorders

Question 88

Ogihara and uchida (globalisation)

HL extension- globalisation

Answer 88

Aim: To investigate the effect of working in an individualistic workplace and how that would affect the subjective well-being of Japanese women.

Procedure: The sample consisted of 34 adult Japanese women who worked for a large multinational insurance company, where performance and achievement-oriented goals were posted on the walls of the offices. The participants answered questionnaires related to individualistic and collectivistic orientation, subjective well-being and the nature of their relationships.

Findings: The results suggested that even in the studies’ achievement-oriented environment, Japanese participants who were achievement-oriented scored lower on subjective well-being and had fewer close friends. The lower levels of well-being in the Japanese sample may be due to the transition that Japan is currently experiencing, where globalisation is leading to a movement toward individualism in the workplace while maintaining the traditional collectivistic values in general society

Conclusion: The study provides a correlation that as you move towards a globalised culture, while maintaining your localised culture, if there is a gap between those cultures (collectivism vs individualism) then this will have an impact on mental health due to identity confusion, leading to a lower subjective well-being.

Question 89

evaluation for ogihara and uchida

Answer 89

• No cause and effect established
• Gynocentric
• Due to the use of surveys and questionnaires, it is hard to appreciate subjective interpretations
• It may lack construct validity, as it is hard to show globalisation
• Very small sample size
• The assumption that all Japanese women are collectivist

Question 90

Becker et al.

Answer 90

Aim:
The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of the introduction of television on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors among Fijian adolescent girls in two secondary schools in the Nadroga district, Fiji.

Procedure:
The study employed a prospective design, assessing the behaviors of participants before and after the introduction of television into Fijian culture. Two samples of Fijian school girls, aged 16 to 18, were studied: the first group in 1995, shortly after television was introduced, and the second group in 1998, three years later. Both groups completed the EAT-26, a standardized test for eating attitudes, despite cultural differences. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to confirm test results and assess evidence of binging/purging behaviors, as well as to gather additional information on dieting practices, body image, and generational values. Weight and height measurements were also taken to provide additional context.

Findings:
The researchers found a significant difference in EAT-26 scores between the 1995 and 1998 groups, with the latter showing higher average scores indicative of more disordered eating attitudes. By 1998, a considerable portion of the sample reported engaging in dieting practices, with a notable increase in self-induced vomiting behaviors. Moreover, there was a notable shift in attitudes towards body image, with a significant portion of participants attributing their desire for weight loss to television influence. The interviews highlighted participants’ admiration for television personalities and their desire to emulate them, despite limited awareness of the heavily edited nature of television images.

Conclusion:
The findings suggest a correlation between the introduction of television and an increase in disordered eating attitudes and behaviors among Fijian adolescent girls. The significant changes observed in attitudes towards body image and dieting practices highlight the influence of television on cultural norms and perceptions of beauty. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of media literacy education in promoting critical awareness of idealized images portrayed in the media and their potential impact on body image and eating behaviors.

Question 91

Becker et al evaluation

Answer 91

• As this is a naturalistic study, it has a high ecological validity. However, it is impossible to replicate so has a low level of reliability
• The data was self-reported. This was not a diagnosis. We cannot say that the girls had eating disorders
• There cannot be a clear cut conclusion that the group in 1998 did not have disordered eating behaviours in 1995 as the two samples didn’t use the same participants.
• It is difficult to isolate the variable of television viewing. There was no logging of the number of hours watched

Question 91

Holistic evaluation for globalisation

Answer 91

• Studying the effects of globalisation is a difficult task as the phenomenon is difficult. Researchers studying the relationship between globalisation and psychological factors and behaviour face many methodological issues with carrying out research that is both valid and reliable.
• There is the difficulty of operationalising variables. The term globalisation is an economic term which is now being applied to cultures. It is difficult to measure the extent of globalisation in a country and thus it is difficult to accurately measure its effect on the local people
• One of the positive aspects of globalisation research is that it has challenged the sampling bias of much psychological research. (typical sample is WEIRD), In trying to understand the effect of globalisation, there has been a richer understanding of the needs for more diverse samples and a more emic approach to studying local cultures.
• Researchers need to be reflexive in their approach to research; that is they need to reflect on how their own cultural biases may influence their interpretation of their findings in their own research
• It is difficult to design a study that effectively tests the assumption that globalisation affects behaviour. There are too many variables that a researcher would not be able to control. Not all countries are at the same level of globalisation, urbanisation or health care. These factors may all influence the degree to which globalisation may affect culture
• Globalisation is an ongoing process, a single snapshot in time is not adequate to understand the effects of globalisation, longitudinal research is necessary
• Often data is self-reported through questionnaires or interviews. This is the only way in which we can obtain an individual’s attitudes or opinions. However, demand characteristics such as the expectancy effect, or social desirability effect may lead to responses which don’t truly affect the realities of the society. This is why it is important to triangulate methods- to see if the results obtained in a one-to-one interview are the same as in a survey or in an observational study.