Research Methods

Question 1

what is the IV

Answer 1

The independent variable is the one that is manipulated/changed by the researcher and is the difference between the two conditions

Question 2

What is the DV?

Answer 2

The dependent variable is the one measured by the researcher

Question 3

What is an operationalised variable?

Answer 3

IV’s and DV’s must be fully operationalised this means stated in a measurable form. This ensures the experiment can be repeated in exactly the same way with the variables being manipulated and measured in the same way.

Question 4

How do you operationalise the IV (using oj experiment as an example)

Answer 4

The temperature of the room, there will be a hot room condition and a cold room condition

Question 5

How do you operationalise the DV (using oj experiment as an example)

Answer 5

The volume of orange juice consumed in one room (measured in cm^3)

Question 6

What are hypotheses?

Answer 6

A hypothesis can be defined as a precisely worded testable statement, made at the outset of an investigation, which indicates the expected outcome of a study

The alternative (experimental) hypothesis: States that the expected effect of the manipulated variable on the outcome is statistically significant

May be a directional or a non-directional hypothesis

Question 7

what does a null hypothesis do?

Answer 7

States that there is no effect in a study

Question 8

What does an experimental hypothesis do?

Answer 8

An experimental hypothesis predicts the effect the IV will have on the DV - that is, what we expect will come out of the manipulation of the independent variable.

Question 9

what is a directional hypothesis?

Answer 9

In a directional hypothesis a researcher makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between two conditions or two groups of people. For this reason directional hypothesis’s include words like more or less, higher or lower, faster or slower

Question 10

how do you write a null hypothesis?

Answer 10

• there will be no difference…
• …any difference will be due to chance

Question 11

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 11

These are other factors apart from the independent variable that can affect the outcome of an experiment. The only thing that should influence the DV is the IV. Any other variables that might potentially interfere with the IV or DV should be controlled or removed these are known as extraneous variables

Question 12

what are confounding variables

Answer 12

Any variable other than the IV may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. Confounding variables are a type of extraneous variable but what makes them confounding is that they are impossible/ very difficult to control for

Question 13

What is an independent groups design?

Answer 13

Different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable.

This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants

This should be done by random allocation, which ensures that each participant has an equal change of being assigned to one group or the other

Question 14

evaluation of independent groups design

Answer 14

• reduces order effects as they are only doing one condition of the independent variable
• demand characteristics aren’t likely as participants only participant in one independent variable condition
• there may be participant extraneous variables
• poor control as there are different participants are in each condition

Question 15

what is a repeated measures design?

Answer 15

The same participant takes part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of participants.

Question 16

evaluation of repeated measures design

Answer 16

• Individual differences between participants are eliminated
• There may be order effects (practice, boredom, fatigue), which may reduce internal validity as the participant behaviour in the second condition may be affected by having already participated in one condition
• Demand characteristics are more likely as participants experience both conditions

Question 17

What is a matched pairs design?

Answer 17

Participants are paired together on a variable or variables relevant to the experiment. For example- each member of one group is the same age, sex or social background as a member of the other group. A matched pairs design is similar to independent measures as in each, each participant only takes part in one condition.

Question 18

evaluation of matched pairs design

Answer 18

• reduces participant extrenuous variables, as the people are similar, so similar results should be yielded, therefore there is good control
• order effects are limited, as the participants only participate in one condition
• unlikely to be any demand characteristics as they only participate in one condition
• very hard to find two people who are 100% the same

Question 19

what are the ways to limit order effects?

Answer 19

Counter balancing- systematic variation of the order of conditions in a study to minimise the influence of extrenuous order effects on experimental results

Randomisation- the order of the presentation of the trials is shuffled to prevent order effects

Question 20

what is event sampling?

Answer 20

event sampling- a target behaviour or event is first established, then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

Question 21

what is point sampling?

Answer 21

point sampling- point sampling means that a researcher makes note of the behaviour of each participant and then moves on to the next participant. If the researcher is studying time “on-task” in the classroom , he may note what student 1 is doing, then student 2, then student 3, and so on

Question 22

what is time sampling?

Answer 22

time sampling- a target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, e.g. every 60 seconds

Question 23

what is inter observer reliability?

Answer 23

inter-observer reliability- it is recommended researchers do not conduct observations alone as this introduced bias to the research. To make data recording more objective and unbiased observations should be carried out by at least two researchers. If the observers get the same or similar data, the results are said to have high inter observer reliability

Question 24

what are behavioural categories?

Answer 24

behavioural categories- when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable

Question 25

what is observation?

Answer 25

observation- a non experimental method of research, it provides researchers with a way of seeing what people do with out having to ask them

Question 26

what is participant observation?

Answer 26

this is where the researcher is part of the situation being studied and may interact with the participants: where the observer acts as part of the group being watched

Question 27

what is non-participant observation?

Answer 27

Non-participant observation- this is where the researcher is not part of the situation being studied and does not interact with the participants: they are separate from the study and record behaviour in a more objective manner

Question 28

what is reflexivity?

Answer 28

• it is important that researchers are aware of how their interactions with participants may affect their behaviour
• critical thinking like this is always important, but particularly when the researcher chooses to study a group in which he or she has personal or political interest
• when writing up the analysis of the study, it is important that the researcher includes this information and any other relevant biographical data because this may have influenced the interpretation of the data

Question 29

positives of participant observation

Answer 29

• provides very detailed and in-depth knowledge of a topic, which cannot be gained by other methods
• one of the best methods to avoid researcher bias because the researchers seek to understand how and why the social processes are the way they are, instead of imposing their own reality on the phenomenon
• provides a holistic interpretation of a topic, because the researcher takes into account as many aspects as possible of that particular group of people, in order to synthesise observations into a while. The researcher uses material from the participants themselves to generate theory and tries to explain one set of observations in terms of its relationship with others

Question 30

negatives of participant observation?

Answer 30

• difficult to record data promptly and objectively
• time consuming and demanding. the researcher needs to be physically present and try to live the life of the people he or she is studying. This takes time- as does data analysis- if the researcher is to arrive at an account that time is reasonably objective and contextually sensitive. This is not possible for short-term projects
• risk that the researchers lose objectivity. researchers are supposed to immerse themselves or “go-native”- that is, be able to see the world from the point of view of the participants. This may present problems in terms of objectivity. In participant observation there is a delicate balance between involvement and detachment

Question 31

what are the positives of non-participant observation?

Answer 31

• it is easier to hold an objective outlook on the people being studied
• researcher bias is less likely

Question 32

what are the negatives of non-participant observation?

Answer 32

• reactivity: participants may not exhibit natural behaviour
• deception can be an ethical issue with non participant observation (for covert)
• low ecological validity → no direct understanding of the group, and no direct insight; assumptions are made.

Question 33

what are naturalistic observations?

Answer 33

observations can take place in a natural situation where the target behaviour would naturally occur. All aspects of the environment are free to vary. The researcher should not interfere with the naturally occurring behaviour. In order to reduce reactivity, the researcher should spend time with the participants before commencing the research.

Question 34

what are the positives of naturalistic observations?

Answer 34

• They have high ecological validity. The collection of data takes place in the participants natural environment and it is assumed that the participants behave as they usually do, in contrast to research in laboratories
• can be used to collect data in cases where it would be impossible or unethical to do so otherwise

Question 35

what are the negatives of naturalistic observations?

Answer 35

• there is the risk that people do react to being observed- that is, there may be reactivity involved
• if the researcher collects the data alone, there may be problems in checking the data. however, multiple observers in the same field can compare data to ensure a match of the data. The researcher can also document the fieldwork extensively and explain how he or she arrived at the conclusions reached, in order to promote credibility.
• ethical considerations concerning the appropriateness of observing strangers without their knowledge. the researcher should also be aware not to violate the privacy of participants.

Question 36

what are controlled observations?

Answer 36

Observations can take place where some variables are controlled and manipulated by the experimenter. This type of observation is chosen when it is useful to control certain aspects of the behaviour. In a controlled observation, there is some control over variables including manipulating variables to observe effects and also control of extraneous variables

Question 37

positives of controlled observations?

Answer 37

• control over variables in the experiment
• standardised experience for all participants, increasing reliability
• lower researcher bias

Question 38

negatives of controlled observations?

Answer 38

• low ecological validity, hard to generalise

Question 39

what are covert observations?

Answer 39

This is when behaviour is observed without first obtaining the consent of the participants. The participants are unaware they are the focus of the study and their behaviour is observed in secret. Such behaviour must be public and happening anyway if the observation is to be ethical.

Question 40

evaluation of covert observations

Answer 40

• high ecological validity as it takes place in a naturalistic setting
• it can be very unethical

Question 41

what are overt observations?

Answer 41

This is when participants know they are being observed and have given informed consent.

Question 42

evaluation of overt observations

Answer 42

• very ethical as informed consent is gained
• may experience reactivity as behaviour is changed when they know that they are being observed

Question 43

what are unstructured observations?

Answer 43

Researchers may prefer to use a more inductive approach with an unstructured observation. In an unstructured observation, the researcher records all behaviour relevant to a research question.

After the observations, the researchers look through their field notes to see what patterns emerge from their data

Question 44

what are structured observations?

Answer 44

The researchers also have to decide whether they will identify the behaviours that will be observed before the observation or whether they will take an unstructured approach and analyse behaviour after the observation.

In a structured observation, the researcher records specific predetermined features of behaviour, using a checklist that has been developed before the observation. This is a deductive approach which is based on existing theory. Data collection is easier and the research team can be trained in how to carry out the observation so that the process is standardised

However, making a checklist limits the observation to preset categories which may not always reflect what happens in a naturalistic environment.

Question 45

how do you establish inter-relater reliability?

Answer 45

• observers should familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories to be used
• they then observe the same behaviour at the same time perhaps as part of a small scale pilor study
• observers should compare the data they have recorded and discuss any differences in interpretations
• finally, observers should analyse the data from the study. Inter-observer reliability is calculated by correlating each pair of observations made and an overall figure is produced

Question 46

what are the key aspects of case studies?

Answer 46

• unusual or unique circumstances
• use of triangulation
• longitudinal

Question 47

what is an unusual or unique circumstance (case study)

Answer 47

A case study is usually conducted on an unusual or rare occurrence such as someone who has experienced a brain injury.

Question 48

what is triangulation (case studies)

Answer 48

typically, data is gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different (e.g. observations and interviews). Case studies are based upon the principle of methodological triangulation, often using a combination of interviews, psychometric testing, questionnaires and observations. Triangulation is the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon.

Question 49

what is a longitudinal case study?

Answer 49

The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen.

Question 50

what is an intrinsic case study?

Answer 50

represent nothing but themselves. Intrinsic case studies are often focused on resolving a problem or better understanding a specific case. For example, an intrinsic case study may want to look at the implementation of a new student to student counselling program at a school that has a bullying problem. There is not a goal of generalising the findings, but to investigate the effectiveness of the program in that specific school.

Question 51

what are instrumental case studies?

Answer 51

represent more general phenomena of interest, such as losing a child, being homeless, or being diagnosed with cancer. The goal of such case studies is to draw conclusions that may be applied outside of that original case.

Question 52

positives of case studies

Answer 52

• rich and detailed insights that shed light on unusual and atypical forms of behaviour
• they may generate hypotheses for future study
  avoids practical/ ethical issues (as they are studying something that has already happened/ doesn’t need to be simulated)

Question 53

negatives of case studies

Answer 53

• subjectivity- information that makes it into the final report is based on the subjective selection and interpretation of the researcher
• not very generalisable due to dealing with such a small sample size
• personal accounts may be prone to inaccuracy and memory decay
• lack of replication

Question 54

Ethics of Case Studies

Answer 54

• In a case study, the researcher often obtains deeply personal information, which is not usually shared with other people.
• The nature of the study means that some of this information will eventually be published, or at least written up as a research report. It is therefore essential that anyone conducting a case study is very protective of their research participant’s identity and that they must try to obscure details that can lead to deduction of identity.
• Also it is important that the researcher has the professional competence to deal with the problems of the case study, e.g. in the case of child abuse or anorexia nervosa.
• Therefore the ethical guidelines such as informed consent, no deception, right to withdraw, debriefing and confidentiality must always be observed.

Question 55

what are experiments?

Answer 55

• experiments are widely used in psychology to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
• They are a form of quantitative research, producing numerical data
• statistical tests are used to check if results are significant and not due to chance

Question 56

what are lab experiments?

Answer 56

• IV is manipulated by the researcher
• DV is measured by the researcher
• It takes place in a highly controlled (artificial setting)

Question 57

what are the positives of lab experiments?

Answer 57

• allow control of extraneous variables that could affect the study’s results
• the study can be easily replicated
• cause and effect can be established

Question 58

what are the negatives of lab experiments?

Answer 58

• lacks ecological validity because they may not represent real-life situations accurately
• lower levels of ecological validity due to artificial setting
• higher chance of demand characteristics being exhibited
• chances for experimenter bias due to high levels of control and input from the researcher when setting up the artificial/ controlled setting

Question 59

what are field experiments?

Answer 59

• IV is manipulated by the researcher
• DV is measured by the researcher
• It takes place in a natural/ real-life setting

Question 60

what are the ethical considerations in field experiments?

Answer 60

• informed consent may be impractical in public settings
• debriefing may be challenging or impossible to conduct

Question 61

what are the positives of field experiments?

Answer 61

• conducted in a real-world environment and therefore has a high level of ecological validity
• reduced demand characteristics

Question 62

what are the negatives of field experiments?

Answer 62

• cannot control extraneous variables effectively
• harder to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
• difficult to replicate due to unique real-life conditions
• ethical concerns related to informed consent and debriefing

Question 63

what are quasi experiments?

Answer 63

• IV is naturally occurring and not manipulated by the researcher- they are predetermined characteristics
• DV is measured by the experimenter
• Can take place in a controlled or natural setting

Question 64

what are positives of quasi experiments?

Answer 64

• Real-world applicability: Quasi-experiments often occur in real-life settings, making their results more applicable to everyday situations
• Ethical Considerations: In some cases, it may be more ethical to use quasi-experiments when random assignment is not possible, as deliberately manipulating certain variables could be harmful
• Exploration of traits: Quasi-experiments allow researchers to study traits or characteristics that cannot be randomly assigned, such as gender or clinical conditions

Question 65

what are the negatives of quasi experiments?

Answer 65

• Lack of causation: Quasi-experiments cannot establish causation definitively because participants are not randomly assigned to groups. They can only suggest associations or correlations
• Confounding variables: It’s challenging to control for all potential confounding variables, which could impact the validity of the results
• Limited control: researchers have less control over the study conditions, making it difficult to isolate the impact of the independent variable

Question 66

what are natural experiments?

Answer 66

• IV is naturally occurring and is not manipulated by the researcher
• DV is measured by the researcher
• Often takes place in a natural setting ( but can be done in a controlled environment)

Question 67

positives of natural experiments?

Answer 67

• Real-world insights: Natural experiments reflect real-world scenarios and can provide valuable insights into the effects of naturally occurring events or changes.
• Ethical advantages: in situations involving environmental changes, natural experiments may be more ethical than deliberately manipulating variables
• Longitudinal data: natural experiments often involve measuring variables before and after the environmental change, allowing for the assessment of long-term effects

Question 68

negatives of natural experiments?

Answer 68

• Lack of control: researchers have little control over the independent variable, which can lead to difficulties in attributing observed effects directly to the variable of interest
• Confounding factors: multiple confounding factors may influence the results, making it challenging to isolate the impact of the IV
• Limited Generalisability: Findings from natural experiments may not generalise well beyond the specific context in which the environmental change occurred
• Rare events: Natural experiments often rely on rare or unique events, limiting the number of opportunities for research

Question 69

what is the importance of ethics boards?

Answer 69

• field experiments and lab experiments require approval from ethics boards
• they ensure the protection of participants and an ethically conducted research

Question 70

expectancy effect (demand characteristics)

Answer 70

the participant attempts to discern the experimenter’s hypotheses with the goal of “helping” the researcher. This may result in acting a certain way or giving the “right answer”.

Question 71

screw you effect (demand characteristics)

Answer 71

the participant attempts to discern the experimenter’s hypotheses, but only to destroy the credibility of the study

Question 72

social desirability effect (demand characteristics)

Answer 72

This is when the participant answers in a way that makes them look good to the researcher. This is done to avoid embarrassment or judgment.

Question 73

how do you control for demand characteristics?

Answer 73

1. Use an independent sample design. By not being exposed to both conditions, participants are less likely to figure out the goal of the experiment
2. During the debriefing, be sure to ask participants if they knew what was being tested, if yes then their results may be inaccurate.
3. Deception is often used in experiments in order to avoid demand characteristics; however, this may lead to ethical problems if the deception leads to undue stress or harm of the participant

Question 74

what is researcher bias?

Answer 74

Researcher bias is when the experimenter sees what he or she is looking for. In other words, the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study. Using a double-blind control can help to avoid this. In this design, not only do the participants not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, but the person experimenting does not know the aim of the study, nor which group is the treatment and which is the control group.

Question 75

what is conformation bias (researcher bias)

Answer 75

occurs when a researcher looks for or interprets information in a way that supports their existing beliefs or hypotheses

Question 76

what is P-Hacking (researcher bias)

Answer 76

A questionable practice where a researcher tries to find patterns in data to claim statistical significance without a clear hypotheses

Question 77

what is funding bias?

Answer 77

raises the question of who funded the study, as funding sources can influence research outcomes or interpretations

Question 78

what is publication bias?

Answer 78

• the tendency in psychology to publish studies with positive results, leading to an incomplete picture of research outcomes
• unpublished studies with no significant findings may go unnoticed, potentially skewing the overall understanding of a topic

Question 79

what is internal validity

Answer 79

• Internal validity examines whether the study’s measurements effectively represent the intended theoretical construct. This is known as/construct validity
• It’s about ensuring that the operationalisation of variables aligns with the theoretical concept being studied. For example, using unrelated measures like watching US films or owning an iPhone to assess “pro-American attitudes” can compromise internal validity as one could argue they do not represent or align with American attitudes.
• Internal validity is also concerned with your ability to establish cause and effect between the IV and DV in an experiment. When there are high levels of control over extraneous variables, there is a greater potential for internal validity in an experiment.

Question 80

what is external validity?

Answer 80

• External validity assesses how well study findings can be applied beyond the specific conditions of the study.
• Two aspects:
  
  • Population Validity: This considers whether the sample used in the study accurately represents the larger population. If the sample is not representative, the study’s results may not be generalisable.
  • Ecological Validity: This focuses on whether the study’s findings apply to real-world situations. Highly controlled lab environments may lack ecological validity as they may not resemble real-life scenarios accurately
• Ecological validity can also be compromised if the study settings or conditions are artificial or uncommon, such as experiments involving shocking strangers or watching videos of car crashes rather than observing real-life events

Question 81

what is self selected sampling

Answer 81

Also, known as a volunteer sample. People who sign-up are usually motivated and are less likely to drop out of the research. However, that may lead to a sample that is not representative of the target population.

Question 82

what is opportunity sampling?

Answer 82

Also known as a convenience sample. This is when you use a pre-existing sample - for example, Mr Smith’s grade 9 English class. It is an easy way to get participants because they are readily available. The groupings often tend to be relatively homogeneous. However, they are also not usually representative of a target population/ However, if you were doing a study only on grade 9 students at your school, and you used four out of the five existing English classes, then your study would be fairly representative.

Question 83

what is random sampling?

Answer 83

A random sample is defined as a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same probability of being chosen. This is often seen as an ideal sampling technique, but if the target population is too large, then random sampling is not possible. In addition, if the target population is very heterogeneous, then random sampling could still generate a biased sample.
If I were taking a random sample from my psychology students, I would put all of their names into a hat. When I withdrew a name, I would put the name back into the hat to make sure that everyone had the same probability of being chosen. Another method is to use a random number generator to create a sample

Question 84

what is snowball/network sampling?

Answer 84

This is another type of purposive sampling, but network sampling is used when you are looking for participants from a specific group which would not respond to an ad in a paper. For example, former drug addicts, people engaged in illegal activities or victims of domestic violence. It could also be because you think that a participant could help you find people more efficiently. Network sampling also helps to build trust with the researcher

Question 85

what is stratified sampling?

Answer 85

Stratified sampling attempts to make a sample that reflects the sub-groups within a target population. If our school, for example, consists of 50% native speakers of English, 30% non native speakers of English, and 20% “ESL still getting language support” - and I ran a study in which the entire sample was made up of native speakers, the study would not be representative of our school community A stratifted sample of 40 participants should be made up of 20 native speakers, 12 non-native speakers and 8 ESL students who are still receiving support. Ideally, the participants are randomly selected from each “stratum.” The problem with stratified samples is that one has to be carefully about how they label the groups within a community. If we were to divide our school into “North American”, “European” and “Other” - would the “other” label fairly represent the non-US/Euro population at our school?

Question 86

what is an interview?

Answer 86

Interviews are an important way to collect qualitative data. They may be used as the primary research method in a study, or they may be used in combination with other methods. For example, before and after carrying out an observation, it is common to carry out interviews to get a deeper insight into the behaviours and cognitive processes of the participants

As with the other research methods, researchers have to decide what type of interview is the best for the question that they are investigating. There are three types of interviews: unstructured, structured and focus group interviews.

Question 87

what is a structured interview?

Answer 87

Structured interviews are focused interviews, which involve the use of a specific set of questions. All questions on the interview schedule must be asked of all participants in the same order and the data from additional questions is not collected. (ensures a standardised experience)

Structured interviews use closed questions- that is, questions which have a limited range of potential responses. Structured interviews allow for large amounts of data to be collected relatively easily. The responses may be converted to quantitative data to allow for statistical analysis. However, the responses are limited in scope and the researchers must be careful about how the wording of the question may influence the response of the participants

Question 88

positives of structured interviews

Answer 88

• Allows for a standardised experience for all participants
  
  • same questions are asked in the same way in the same order; providing each participant with the same experience
  • for comparison
  • 1-10= quantitative for statistical analysis
• Highly efficient as there is no in-depth insight, so the interviewer simply ticks along a set of questions
• Similar and relevant responses are gained
• Less potential researcher bias
• Streamlines the process

Question 89

negatives of structured interviews

Answer 89

• The interviewer can’t note down any extra information that the participant says
• No in-depth insight into the participants’ experience
• doesn’t capture the richness of individual experiences
• They don’t allow the participant to freely express their opinions and often limit their answer
• May fail to capture their true experiences

Question 90

Focus groups

Answer 90

Focus group discussions are group interviews which take advantage of the interaction between a small group of people. Participants respond to and build on what others in the group have said; this approach is believed to generate more insightful information and encourages participants to give more candid answers. Focus groups are characterised by the presence of a moderator and the use of a discussion guide. The moderator should stimulate discussion among group members rather than interview individual members, that is to say, every participant should be encouraged to express his/her views on each topic as well as respond to the views expressed by other participants.

In order to put focus group participants at ease, the moderator will often start out by assuring everyone that there are no right or wrong answers and that his/her feelings cannot be hurt by any views that are expressed since s/he does not work for the organisation for which the research is being conducted. Focus groups can be homogenous (they share key features) or heterogenous ( they are different, pre-existing) or new. They can also be concerned (interested in the subject matter in question) or naive (not committed in the question).

Question 91

positives of using focus groups

Answer 91

• it is a quick and convenient way to collect data from several individuals simultaneously
• provides a setting that is natural, so it can be argued that it has higher ecological validity than the one-to-one interview. The researcher plays less of a central role and the conversations happen among the participants
• members of the group may help to prompt relevant ideas and opinions of others that might not come out in a one-to-one interview

Question 92

negatives of focus groups

Answer 92

• not appropriate for all research questions. If the research deals with sensitive matters and the participants are supposed to talk about their personal experiences, it is not guaranteed that people will disclose information. There is also the ethical concern that other participants in the group mat not keep the information confidential
• the presence of other participants may result in group dynamics such as conformity
• they can be difficult to facilitate and the data is more difficult to analyse

Question 93

what are unstructured interviews?

Answer 93

Unstructured interviews are natural conversations with an interviewee. An interview schedule may be used. The questions are open-ended, allowing a range of potential responses from the interviewee. If questions are used, other information obtained- even if not directly in response to the questions- will be collected. The researcher may also carry out a narrative-style interview in which no specific questions are asked, but instead, a topic is proposed.

This type of interview is flexible and can be changed based on the responses from the interviewee. Unstructured interviews create qualitative data that cannot be meaningfully converted to quantitative data. The most common form of analysis is content analysis, meaning that the results are more open to interpretation by the researcher(s). Training of interviewers is very important, as body language, communication style and building a good rapport with the interviewee are all important skills to ensure the credibility of the interview.

Question 94

positives of unstructured interviews

Answer 94

• researchers are not restricted in the questions that can be asked during the interview. they can ask the interviewee to elaborate on his/her answers
• it enables the researcher to make interventions, asking participants either to clarify or expand on areas of interest
• uses an inductive approach which believes that data may emerge from an interview and provide information that was not expected

Question 95

negatives of unstructured interviews

Answer 95

• although the themes are set, the questions are not. this means that the way that questions are asked is subject to the skill and biases of the researcher
• the one-to-one situation is somewhat artificial and this could bring issues such as ecological validity into question
• data analysis is very time-consuming as each participant that is interviewed has a different set of questions. this means that the interview process isn’t highly standardised, making comparison of the data difficult in some cases

Question 96

what are considerations before an interview?

Answer 96

Consider a relevant sampling method
Training of interviewers
Choice of interviewer
Planning the interview- constructing an interview guide
Ethical Issues
Types of questions
Data recording
Transcription of the data
The debrief

Question 97

Surveys and Questionnaires

Answer 97

surveys- quantitative
questionnaires- qualitative

Question 98

strengths of surveys/ questionnaires

Answer 98

1. In-depth, personal insight is received from the participants, with both qualitative and quantitative data being obtained
2. Simple and straightforward approach to the study, with high efficiency and relatively low cost
3. Surveys and questionnaires can help deal with a large participant group in a relatively short period of time
4. Subjective experiences directly from participant experiences are collected

Question 99

Weaknesses of surveys/questionnaires

Answer 99

1. Surveys/ questionnaires may be subject to social desirability bias
2. May be subjective to response bias (use neutral questions to remove this)
3. May be subject to memory limitations (questionnaires)
4. Participants may not want to share the full experience
5. May lack depth for in-depth understanding (surveys)
6. Surveys use closed-ended questions
7. Can’t clarify responses

Question 100

what is a correlation?

Answer 100

a measure of how strongly two or more variables are related to each other

Question 101

positive correlation

Answer 101

as one variable increases/decreases, so does the other

Question 102

negative correlation

Answer 102

s one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa)

Question 103

correlational hypotheses

Answer 103

• correlations can’t show cause and effect
• can’t mention the effect on one variable will have on the other; talk about the relationship between two variables

Question 104

null hypothesis- correlations

Answer 104

there will no significant relationship between V1 and V2 any relationship will be due to chance

Question 105

alternate hypotheses

Answer 105

• One-tailed: there will be a significant relationship +ve/-ve between V1 and V2
• Two-tailed: there will be a significant relationship between V1 and V2