The Cognitive Approach

Question 1

What is the multi store model of memory?

Answer 1

1. The sensory register

This is a temporary store holding information from the environment very briefly in the form in which it is received- that is, visually, auditory, tactile, or olfactory.

Information needs to receive attention if it is going to begin the process of being transferred to short term memory

A stimulus from the environment will pass into the sensory register. So this part of memory is not in one store, but several, in fact one for each of the five senses. The two main stores are called iconic memory (visual memory is coded visually) and echoic memory (sound or auditory information is coded acoustically)

The sensory register is where information from the senses is stored, but only for a duration of approximately half a second before it is forgotten. In terms of encoding it is modality-specific, i.e. whichever sense is registered will match the way it is consequently held.

The capacity is unknown but it is suggested to be unlimited.

1. Short term memory

STM is thought to have a capacity of 5-9 items and a duration of approximately 18-30 seconds. The capacity can be increased through ‘chunking’.

Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves over and over again. We can keep the information in our short-term memory as long as we rehearse it. If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into our long-term memory. If the information is not rehearsed- or if more information disrupts rehearsal- then the information in the store may be displaced and lost. In addition, when we recall something it is retrieved from LTM and enters our STM so that decisions can be made and problems can be solved

1. Long term memory

LTM is where memory is stored after it has been rehearsed while in STM. LTM is of unlimited capacity and duration.

Rehearsing information via the rehearsal loop helps to retain information in the STM, and consolidate it to LTM, which is predominantly encoded semantically.

Long term memory is known as the potentially permanent memory store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time. Information can be stored and retrieved for up to any duration, and equally has a seemingly unlimited capacity.

Question 2

what is the serial position effect?

Answer 2

• The serial position effect refers to the findings that recall accuracy varies as a function of the position of an item within a study list. When asked to recall a list of items in any order, people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best. This is known as the recency effect. Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle terms; this is known as the primacy effect.
• One suggested reason for the primacy effect is that the initial items presented are most effectively stored in long-term memory because of the greater amount of processing devoted to them. The first list item can be rehearsed by itself; the second must be rehearsed along with the first, the third along with the first and second, and so on.
• One suggested reason for the recency effect is that these items are still present in working memory when recall is solicited.
• Items that benefit from neither effect are recalled most poorly
  
  • The primacy effect is enhanced when items are presented slowly and reduced when they are presented quickly
  • The recency effect is reduced when an interfering task is given

Question 3

Glanzer and Cunitz

MSM

Answer 3

Aim:
Glanzer and Cunitz aimed to investigate the impact of time intervals between words and repetition on the primacy effect in memory recall. They hypothesized that longer intervals between words would enhance rehearsal, leading to a greater primacy effect, while repetition would improve overall recall.

Procedure:
The study utilized an independent samples design with 240 Army enlisted men, divided into six conditions, each consisting of 40 participants:

Each word read once at a 3-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 3-second rate
Each word read once at a 6-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 6-second rate
Each word read once at a 9-second rate
Each word read twice in succession at a 9-second rate
Participants underwent a practice session with two 5-word lists to familiarize themselves with the procedure. Subsequently, they listened to recordings of eight 20-word lists, with variations in time intervals and repetition. After each list, participants had two minutes to recall the words in any order. The researchers used a bell to signal the end of each list.

Findings:
The study revealed that longer time intervals between words led to increased recall for all words in the list except for those at the end. The primacy effect, characterized by better recall of words at the beginning of the list, was enhanced with longer time intervals, indicating the role of rehearsal in memory retention. However, the effect of repetition on recall was observed only at the 3-second rate, with no significant impact at the 6 or 9-second rates.

Conclusion:
The findings support the theory that the primacy effect is a result of rehearsal, as longer time intervals allowed for more rehearsal and consequently greater overall recall of the list. However, the availability of words in short-term memory mitigated the impact of repetition on recall. This study contributes to our understanding of memory processes and the factors influencing memory retention, particularly the role of rehearsal and time intervals in shaping the primacy effect.

Question 4

The case study of HM: Milner

Answer 4

Aim:
The aim of this case study was to investigate the effects of surgical removal of specific brain structures on patient HM’s memory functioning, particularly focusing on the role of the hippocampus and other medial temporal structures in memory formation and retention.

Procedure:
To conduct the research, Milner utilized various methods including psychometric testing, direct observation of behavior, interviews with HM and family members, cognitive testing including memory recall tasks and learning tasks, and later MRI scans by Corkin to assess the extent of brain damage. These methods allowed for a comprehensive understanding of HM’s memory capabilities and deficits post-surgery.

Findings:
The study revealed that HM was unable to acquire new episodic or semantic knowledge, indicating the importance of the removed brain structures in transferring information from short-term to long-term memory. However, he demonstrated intact working memory and retained procedural memories, suggesting the involvement of different brain areas in various memory systems. MRI scans showed damage primarily in the hippocampus and surrounding temporal lobe structures, supporting the critical role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation.

Conclusion:
The study highlights the specialization and complexity of memory systems in the brain, particularly emphasizing the role of the hippocampus in converting short-term memories into long-term memories. Additionally, it suggests that short-term memory is not stored in the hippocampus, as evidenced by HM’s ability to retain information temporarily through rehearsal. The preservation of some pre-surgery memories indicates that the medial temporal region may not be the site of permanent storage but rather facilitates the organization and storage of memories elsewhere in the brain. Furthermore, the presence of intact procedural memory supports the notion of multiple memory stores, each associated with different brain regions.

Question 5

Case study of HM link to MSM

Answer 5

This study provides evidence for the multi-store model of memory by demonstrating distinct memory systems associated with different brain regions. HM’s inability to acquire new episodic and semantic knowledge following hippocampal damage aligns with the model’s concept of a separate long-term memory store where information is permanently stored. Meanwhile, his intact working memory and retained procedural memories suggest the existence of separate short-term and procedural memory stores, respectively. Thus, the findings of this study support the multi-store model’s proposition of distinct memory stores with different functions and neural substrates.

Question 6

evaluation for HM case study

Answer 6

• The study was a case study. The strength of this study is that it waslongitudinal- over 50 years! This means that change could be observed over time. In addition, case studies use method triangulation.
• The limitation of case studies is that they cannot be easily replicated. However, there are several other case studies of patients like HM - for example, Clive Wearing - which confirm the findings.
• Some of the study was retrospective. This means that we do not have a lot of data on HM’s actual cognitive abilities before the accident.
• The medication taken to treat epilepsy may have resulted in some of the damage, but this is not highly relevant as it is the damage to specific parts of the brain that is important.
• Highecological validity, no variables were manipulated and HM was observed in his natural environment.
• Milner’s research met high ethical standards of consent, confidentiality, and protection from harm.

Question 7

Positive evaluation for the multi store model of memory

Answer 7

• The model gave us a way to talk about memory and much of the research which followed was based on this model, trying to answer many of the questions psychologists had about memory
• There is a large base of research that supports the idea of distinct STM and LTM systems
• The multi-store model has also been useful in explaining certain memory phenomena, such as the primacy and recency effects. These effects occur when people are presented with a list of items to remember; the items at the beginning of the list are more likely to be remembered due to their entry into long-term memory, while the items at the end of the list are more likely to be remembered due to their presence in short-term memory
• The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research and consequently other influential models, such as the working memory model.

Question 8

negative evaluation for the multi store model of memory

Answer 8

• Some research into STM duration has low ecological validity, as the stimuli participants were asked to remember bear little resemblance to items learned in real life (lack mundane realism)
• The model is over-simplified and assumes that all stores work as an independent unit, evidence suggests that there are many different short term and long term stores
• The model does not explain memory distortion
• The model does not explain why some things may be learned with a minimal amount of rehearsal. The levels of processing theory challenges this model, showing that the way in which we process information may be more important than the frequency of rehearsal
• It does not make much sense to think of a procedural memory as being encoded semantically (i.e. learning to ride a bike through its meaning)
• It is only assumed that LTM has an unlimited capacity, as research has been unable to measure this accurately.

Question 9

Similarities between the multi store model and the working memory model

Answer 9

Recognise that STM and LTM are separate stores
Neither model provides an explanation for memory distortion or the role of emotion in memory formation
Both models argue that rehearsal is necessary for complete memory retention

Question 10

differences between the MSM and the WMM

Answer 10

MSM
More over-simplified than the working memory model
Passive process

WMM
Breaks STM into 4 substores
Provides STM as a more dynamic process
Allows for parallel processing/multitasking

Question 11

What prompted the working model of memory

Answer 11

Their proposal followed Atkinson and Shiffrins ‘Multi-store model of memory’, which was criticised for being too simple. They proposed that STM, or working memory was not just one store, but composed of many stores with different localised areas.

• This came from his findings on dual performance tasks where he found that two visual tasks led to poor performance, however, if one task was visual and one was verbal, then there was no interruption.

Question 12

What are dual performance tasks?

Answer 12

• the proposed three-stores STM stemmed from research using a ‘dual task technique’, whereby performance is measured as participants perform two tasks simultaneously. The following observations provided evidence to suggest different, limited capacity STM stores process different types of memory
• If one store is utilised for both tasks then task performance is poorer than when they are completed separately, due to the stores limited capacity
• If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing them simultaneously

Question 13

What is the central executive

Answer 13

• replaces the sensory register
• directs attention to tasks and determines how resources (slave systems) are allocated
• Allocates information based on modality (i.e. visual or auditory)
• Involves reasoning and decision-making tasks
• Limited capacity
• Coding is modality-free

Question 14

what is the phonological loop?

Answer 14

• Deals with information and language- both written and spoken
• Limited capacity
• Baddeley further divided it into the phonological store and the articulatory loop (repetition)
• Coding is Acoustic

Question 15

what is the visuospatial sketchpad?

Answer 15

• visual and/or spatial information is stored here
  
  • Visual- what things look like
  • Spatial- relationship between things
• Limited capacity (3-4 objects)
• It has two subsystems:
  
  • The visual cache- stores visual data
  • The inner scribe- records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
• Coding is Visual

Question 16

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 16

• The buffer was added to the model later on
• It is used when the central executive has no storage capacity
• Buffers extra storage, however it has a limited capacity of 4 chunks
• Coding is modality-free

Question 17

Landry and Bartling (WMM)

Answer 17

Aim:
The aim of the study conducted by Landry and Bartling (2011) was to investigate the impact of articulatory suppression on the recall of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall tasks. Specifically, the researchers sought to test the hypothesis that articulatory suppression would disrupt the functioning of the phonological loop component of the Working Memory Model, leading to decreased accuracy in recall.

Procedure:
The experiment involved thirty-four undergraduate psychology students and utilized an independent samples design. Participants were individually tested, with one group assigned to the experimental condition and another to the control condition. In the experimental group, participants were required to recall a list of phonologically dissimilar letters while simultaneously engaging in articulatory suppression by repeating numbers ‘1’ and ‘2’ at a rate of two numbers per second. The control group, on the other hand, performed the serial recall task without engaging in articulatory suppression. Both groups completed ten trials, with each trial consisting of presenting a series of seven letters randomly chosen from the set {F, K, L, M, R, X, Q}, followed by participants writing the correct order of the letters on an answer sheet.

Findings:
The results revealed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of recall accuracy. The mean percent of accurate recall in the control group was substantially higher (76%) compared to the experimental group (45%). Despite similar standard deviations between the two groups, a T-test indicated a significant difference (p ≤ 0.01) in recall accuracy. These findings suggest that articulatory suppression impairs serial recall of phonologically dissimilar letters, supporting the hypothesis that it disrupts the functioning of the phonological loop in the Working Memory Model.

Conclusion:
The study’s findings support the Working Memory Model’s proposition that articulatory suppression interferes with the phonological loop’s ability to maintain and rehearse information, leading to reduced recall accuracy. The observed decrease in recall accuracy in the experimental group, compared to the control group, suggests that articulatory suppression overwhelms the phonological loop, preventing effective rehearsal and encoding of information. Thus, this study underscores the importance of articulatory rehearsal in the maintenance of phonologically encoded information in working memory.

Question 18

what research method did landry and bartling use?

Answer 18

True experiment:
IV is manipulated by the researcher. DV is measured by the researcher.
Causality can be determined
Attempt to control extraneous variables, increasing internal validity
Participants are randomly allocated to conditions
The data is statistically analysed and a p-value is calculated

Question 19

Shallice and Warrington (case study on KF) WMM model

Answer 19

Aim:
The aim of this case study was to investigate the relationship between Long-Term Memory (LTM) and Short-Term Memory (STM) in the case of K.F., a young man with impaired STM due to a motorcycle incident, focusing on memory trace formation and retrieval.

Procedure:
The researchers conducted a case study on K.F., a 28-year-old man who had experienced a motorcycle accident 11 years prior, resulting in impaired STM. Psychological assessment revealed K.F.’s inability to repeat letters or numbers, indicating a defect in STM while his LTM remained intact. An experiment was conducted involving the repetition of randomly selected numbers, letters, and word strings of varying lengths. These items were not repeated within a string, and high-frequency 4 and 5-letter words were used. K.F.’s auditory and visual memory performance was assessed through these tasks.

Findings:
The results demonstrated a clear relationship between the length of the string and K.F.’s auditory performance, with his ability to repeat items reliably decreasing as the string length increased. Even for 2-item strings, K.F.’s performance was faulty, and it deteriorated significantly for 3 and 4-item strings. Notably, K.F.’s repetition for numbers was slightly better than for letters. Although auditory problems were ruled out, subsequent experiments indicated that K.F.’s memory for visually-presented material was better than for auditory-presented material, suggesting separate memory stores for these modalities. Despite K.F.’s severely impaired STM, his LTM remained intact.

Conclusion:
The study concludes that K.F.’s STM was severely impaired, characterized by a reduced capacity to retain and repeat items. However, his intact LTM contradicts the idea proposed by the Multi-Store Model (MSM) that information must first pass through STM to be stored in LTM. Instead, the findings support Atkinson and Shiffrin’s contention that separate memory stores exist for STM and LTM. The difference in auditory and visual memory capacity further suggests distinct memory stores for these modalities. Thus, this case study provides valuable insights into the complex relationship between LTM and impaired STM, challenging traditional models of memory.

Question 20

Shallice and warrington evaluation

Answer 20

• carefully designed experiments on just one person as part of a case study.
• The variables of how the material was presented, K.F.’s comprehension and expressive language functions were all isolated and controlled.
• It provides evidence that there are separate stores for visual and auditory memory
• There is no analysis of why the memory for numbers is better than that of the memory for words or letters
• No alternative explanation is given of how auditory material is transferred into LTM if STM is so impaired
• Evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be reliable because it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experiences.

Question 21

Landry and Bartling evaluation

Answer 21

The study is a well-controlled study with a high level ofinternal validity. A cause-and-effect relationship can be determined.

However, the nature of the study is rather artificial and thuslacks ecological validity.

The study supports the Working Memory Model and is easily replicable. The findings are, therefore, reliable.

Critical Thinking points

• by preventing repetition they supported the idea that the articulatory loop is required to remember information

Question 22

Case study method: (milner) HM and KF (shallice and warrington)

Answer 22

A case study is based on method triangulation with the goal of increasing the credibility of the study
Usually, case studies are longitudinal in nature
A case study may study an individual, group or organisation, based on a specific trait or behaviour
Data may be a combination of qualitative and quantitative data

Question 23

Evaluation on the working model of memory (positive)

Answer 23

• The model was developed based on evidence from laboratory experiments, so confounding variables could be carefully controlled to produce reliable results
• The working memory model provides an explanation for parallel processing, unlike the multi-store model. Therefore this model helps us to understand why we can multitask in some situations but not others
• The shallice and warrington study; case study on KF, revealed that there are separate visual and acoustic stores
• From using PET scans, there appears to be more activity in the left half of the brain of people carrying out visual memory tasks but more on the right half during spatial tasks; e.g. there are separate visual and spatial systems

Question 24

Evaluation of the working model of memory (negative)

Answer 24

• Despite providing more detail of STM than the multi-store model, the working memory model has been criticised for being too simplistic and vague, it is unclear what the central executive is, or its exact role in attention
• The tasks used to try and see if there are different stores e.g. articulatory suppression tasks, have a very low ecological validity and lack mundane realism
• The model only really explains short term memory, so tells us very little about the entire process of memory
• It doesn’t explain memory distortion or the role emotion plays in memory formation

Question 25

What are schemas?

Answer 25

Schemas are mental representations that are derived from prior experience and knowledge. Schemas help us to predict what to expect based on what has happened before. They are used to:

• organise our knowledge
• to assist recall
• to guide our behaviour
• to help us make sense of current experiences

Question 26

What are the differences between schemas and scripts?

Answer 26

• schemas are used to organise our knowledge, to assist recall, to guide out behaviour, to predict likely happenings and to help us make sense of current experiences
• schemas are cognitive structures that are derived from prior experience and knowledge. They simplify reality, setting up expectations about what is probable in relation to particular social and textual concepts
• Schemas are culturally specific but may vary even within a single culture because of such factors as class
• Scripts are schema about events in time rather than schema for objects. We have scripts for how to go to dinner in a restaurant, what happens on Christmas day.

Question 27

what is schema theory?

Answer 27

• Schema theory is a theory of how humans process incoming information, relate it to existing knowledge and use it
• The theory is based on the assumption that humans are active processors of information. People do not passively respond to information. They interpret and integrate it to make sense of their experiences. It is however, mostly subconscious
• If information is missing, the brain fills in the blanks based on existing schemas, which can result in mistakes

Question 28

what is reconstructive memory?

Answer 28

Cognitive Psychologists argue that memory is reconstructive- that is we do not have full memories stored in our brain; instead, when we access a memory, we are actually accessing several different data points.

These are all related to the schema of the object, event or person which we are trying to recall

Question 29

What are cognitive misers?

Answer 29

Cognitive miser: Ability and tendency of the human brain to problem solve in the most simple and straightforward ways rather than utilising more sophisticated and effort-intensive ways

Schemas allow us to look at something and work out what it is without having to be told what it is or having to conduct research

Question 30

How did Piaget define schemas?

Answer 30

cohesive, repeatable action sequences possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.

Question 31

what are processes by which we learn schemas?

Answer 31

• Assimilation is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or event- once a child understands that a dog is hairy or furry with four legs, then all dogs are understood to belong to the schema. It is also when you add information to an existing schema
• Accommodation is changing an existing schema or developing an new schema when it cannot adequately explain a new object or event
• At about 18 months of age, internalisation of schemas take place, and children are able to gain knowledge, not through physical trial and error, but by imagining things and mentally combining schemas in a learning process. This is the same as the adult use of schemas: they become mental representations based on experience.

Question 32

Bartlett (schema theory)

Answer 32

Aim:
The aim of Bartlett’s study was to investigate how memory of a story is influenced by prior knowledge and cultural schemas. Specifically, he wanted to determine if unfamiliarity with a text and cultural background would lead to memory distortion when recalling the story.

Procedure:
Participants, all British, were presented with a Native American legend called The War of the Ghosts. Bartlett employed two conditions: repeated reproduction, where participants were asked to reproduce the story repeatedly over time, and serial reproduction, where participants recalled and retold the story to another person. Through these conditions, Bartlett examined how memory changed over time and with social interaction.

Findings:
Bartlett discovered that participants in both conditions exhibited memory distortion. Three main patterns of distortion emerged: assimilation, where details were unconsciously altered to fit British cultural norms; leveling, where the story became shorter with each retelling as less important details were omitted; and sharpening, where the order of the story was changed and additional details were added to make it more coherent within the participants’ cultural framework. Despite these alterations, participants generally remembered the main themes of the story.

Conclusion:
The study demonstrated that memory is an active and reconstructive process influenced by prior knowledge and cultural schemas. Bartlett’s findings support the theory of reconstructive memory, suggesting that memories are not exact replicas but are instead reconstructed to fit existing schemas, thus emphasizing the role of meaning-making in memory formation.

Question 33

Bartlett (positive evaluation)

Answer 33

Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory has several applications and explains many real-life situations. Thus, in spite of the fact it was carried out in a laboratory, it has high ecological validity. (lacks mundane realism; but has real-world application)

Bartletts study marked a shift towards understanding memory as dynamic and reconstructive, emphasising the need to appreciate its historical significance in the evolution of cognitive psychology

Legal implications, the study’s insights into memory distortion have critical implications for the reliability if eyewitness testimony, urging legal systems to account for the reconstructive nature of memory

Question 34

Bartlett (negative evaluation)

Answer 34

The methodology was not rigorously controlled. Participants did not receivestandardized instructions.There was no standardized time after which participants had to recall the story. He also did not tell his participants to be as accurate as possible.

Although there were two conditions, there was no difference in the performance of the two groups - in other words, the IV did not affect the DV. However, it appears that culture did affect how they recalled the story. But if we focus on how cultural schema affect the participants’ memories, there are several limitations. When we consider culture the IV, then the study is quasi-experimental - that is, no independent variable was manipulated. Therefore, a cause-and-effect relationship cannot be established. Secondly, there was no control group. There was no group of Native Americans recalling the story to verify that, in fact, this distortion doesn’t happen to people in that cultural group

Question 35

Bartlett: research method

Answer 35

True experiment:
IV is manipulated by the researcher. DV is measured by the researcher.
Causality can be determined
Attempt to control extraneous variables, increasing internal validity
Participants are randomly allocated to conditions
The data is statistically analysed and a p-value is calculated

Question 36

Brewer and Treyens (schema theory)

Answer 36

Aim: The study aimed to investigate the role of schema in the encoding and retrieval of episodic memory. Schema theory suggests that prior experiences influence how individuals remember new information.

Procedure:

• The study involved 86 university psychology students.
• Participants were placed in a room designed to resemble an office, with typical office objects and some unusual items.
• They were asked to wait in the room, unaware that the study had begun.
• After a brief period, participants were asked to recall objects from the office.
• Different recall conditions were employed: written recall with subsequent verbal recognition, drawing recall, and verbal recognition only.
• Participants were later given a questionnaire to assess their expectations regarding remembering objects from the room.

Findings:

• Participants were more likely to recall items congruent with their schema of an office.
• Incongruent items were less frequently recalled during free recall but were often identified during verbal recognition tasks.
• Participants tended to alter the nature of objects to fit their schema, such as relocating items or changing their shape.
• Despite not expecting to be asked to remember the objects, participants demonstrated schema-driven recall and recognition.

Conclusion: The study’s findings suggest that schema influences both the encoding and retrieval processes of episodic memory. Participants were more likely to remember items consistent with their schema of an office and were prone to altering their recollection to fit preexisting expectations. This underscores the role of prior experiences in shaping memory processes.

Question 37

Brewer and Treyens evaluation

Answer 37

In the written recall condition, the average number of correct objects recalled was 13.5. The average number of “inferred” objects recalled was 1.13. The objects that were remembered that were not in the room were books (by 9/30), a filing cabinet (3/30), pens (1/30), a coffee cup (2/30), a telephone (1/30), a lamp (1/30), and curtains (1/30). The results do not indicate a high number of errors and do not explain why some recalled these objects yet others did not.

There is no way to verify the schema of the participants before the experiment, but the researchers did a pilot study by using a questionnaire with students to determine schema-consistent objects.

There are ethical concerns about the deception used in the study. The participants had agreed to be in the study, but they were deceived about the true nature of the study and were not told when the experiment had begun. This was necessary to avoid demand characteristics

Question 38

Positive evaluation for schema theory

Answer 38

• There is a lot of experimental evidence that schema are an important tool in encoding and retrieving memories
• Useful explanation for information processing:
  
  • Schema theory provides a valuable framework for understanding how individuals process and organise incoming information. It highlights the active roll of existing knowledge and mental frameworks in shaping perception and cognition
• Explains memory encoding and retrieval: schemas facilitate memory encoding and retrieval by providing a structure for organising and categorising new information. They help in filling gaps and reconstructing details based on existing knowledge, leading to more efficient recall
• Schema theory seems to reflect the biological research that argues that memories are not localised but distributed throughout the brain
• High predictive power validity: Schema theory allows for the prediction of individuals’ expectations, judgements and behaviours based on their pre-existing schemas. It provides insights into how people interpret and make sense of new situations, aiding in understanding and predicting human behaviour.
• Useful practical applications: schema theory has found applications in various fields, such as education, therapy, and marketing. It can be used to design effective instructional strategies, develop therapeutic interventions and create persuasive advertising campaigns by leveraging peoples existing schemas

Question 39

negative evaluation for schema theory

Answer 39

• Schemas themselves are hard to isolate as a construct
• It is unclear how schemas are acquired in the first place and how they influence cognitive processes. It is not possible to actually observe schema processing taking place within the brain
• It does not account for individual differences in having varying schemas in place

Question 40

What is the dual process model?

Answer 40

Dual process ideas developed in the 1970s, with the first use of the term appearing in the title of the paper published by Watson and Evans.

Later psychologists propose that dual-process reflects the existence of two separate but interacting systems of thinking and decision making: System 1, which is automatic holistic and intuitive thinking based on heuristics and system 2 which is analytical logical and slower thinking.

Question 41

What is system 1 thinking?

Answer 41

Old in evolutionary terms
Universal, shared between animals and humans
Automatic, fast and intuitive
Based on heuristics and experience and usually involves inductive reasoning
Takes little concentration or energy
Holistic and networked learning
Not related to cognitive ability and intelligence
Less likely to decline in old age

Question 42

What is system 2 thinking?

Answer 42

Evolved more recently
Higher level and uniquely human
Slower and under conscious control; can be turned on and off
Based on abstract reasoning from hypothetical situations which are usually deductive
requires careful concentration and conscious thought
Sequential and uses working memory
Strongly linked to cognitive ability and intelligence
Declines in old age

Question 43

Interactions between system 1 and system 2 thinking?

Answer 43

• both systems are active when we are awake, with system one being automatically and system two being in background mode
• Khanemann argues that system two has the ability to change the way that system one works using programming attention and memory

Question 44

why do we tend to use system one thinking?

Answer 44

• we are cognitive misers- wanting to use as little energy as we can to think
• sometimes, even when we want to focus, it is difficult
• sometimes we have too many other things going on in our mind to allocate energy for solving a problem, this is because our cognitive load is too high
• all of this together is referred to as the law of least effort- if there are several ways of achieving the same goal, people will chose the least demanding course of action.

Question 45

Tversky and Khaneman APFC

Answer 45

Aim

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of anchoring bias on high school students’ estimation of the value of a mathematical problem.

Procedure

The researchers conducted an experiment using high school students as participants. Participants were divided into two conditions. In the “ascending condition,” participants were asked to quickly estimate the value of 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 X 5 X 6 X 7 X 8 within five seconds. In the “descending condition,” participants were asked to quickly estimate the value of 8 X 7 X 6 X 5 X 4 X 3 X 2 X 1 within five seconds. The researchers hypothesized that the initial number seen (1 or 8) would serve as an anchor and influence the estimates provided by the participants.

Findings

The researchers found that the median estimate for the ascending group was 512, whereas the median estimate for the descending group was 2250. The actual value of the multiplication is 40320. This significant difference in estimates indicates that the initial number (anchor) seen by participants influenced their judgments.

Conclusion

The study concluded that anchoring bias significantly affects individuals’ estimates, demonstrating how initial information can disproportionately influence subsequent judgments. The findings suggest that the initial number seen serves as an anchor, biasing the participants’ estimates of the mathematical problem’s value.

Question 46

Tversky and Khaneman Link paragraph to dual process model

Answer 46

This study provides evidence for the dual processing model by illustrating how individuals rely on heuristic, automatic processing when faced with a time-constrained task. The dual processing model posits that there are two systems of thinking: System 1, which is fast, automatic, and reliant on heuristics, and System 2, which is slow, deliberate, and logical. In this study, the participants used System 1 processing due to the five-second time limit, leading them to rely on the initial number (anchor) as a heuristic shortcut for estimating the value. This reliance on the anchor demonstrates the influence of automatic, heuristic-based thinking in decision-making.

Question 47

Tversky and Khaneman Evaluation

Answer 47

The study’s simplicity and ease of replication contribute to its reliability, with high internal validity due to the controlled experimental conditions. The use of the median for data reporting effectively minimized the impact of outliers. However, the study has low ecological validity, as the artificial setting and five-second time constraint do not reflect typical real-life decision-making scenarios. The independent samples design raises concerns about participant variability, as differences in math competency could have influenced the results. A matched pairs design could better control for such variability, ensuring more equivalent groups. Despite these limitations, the study effectively demonstrates the anchoring bias and supports the dual processing model, aligning with findings from more complex, ecologically valid studies on anchoring effects in various contexts.

Question 48

Englich and Mulweiser APFC

Answer 48

Aim

The aim of the study was to investigate whether the recommended sentence proposed by a prosecutor would unduly influence a judge’s decision, thereby demonstrating the effect of anchoring bias on judicial decision-making.

Procedure

The researchers used an independent samples design with 19 young trial judges (15 male and 4 female), averaging 29.37 years of age and 9.34 months of courtroom experience. The judges were given a case of alleged rape with identical case materials, but with different prosecutor demands: one group was given a low anchor of a 2-month sentence, and the other group was given a high anchor of a 34-month sentence. After forming an opinion on the case, the judges answered questions about the appropriateness of the sentence, their recommended sentence, their certainty, and the realism of the case.

Findings

When presented with the low anchor of two months, the average recommended sentence was 18.78 months (SD = 9.11). For the high anchor condition of 34 months, the average recommended sentence was 28.70 months (SD = 6.53). This significant difference indicates that the anchor provided by the prosecutor influenced the judges’ sentencing decisions.

Conclusion

The study concluded that the anchoring bias significantly affects judicial decision-making. Judges’ sentencing recommendations were unduly influenced by the prosecutor’s suggested sentence, demonstrating how initial information can disproportionately affect subsequent judgments, even in professional contexts.

Question 49

Englich and Mulweiser link to dual process theory of thinking and decision making

Answer 49

This study relates to thinking and decision making, specifically the dual processing theory, by showing how System 1 and System 2 thinking operate in judicial decision-making. The dual processing theory posits that System 1 thinking is fast, automatic, and based on heuristics, while System 2 thinking is slower, deliberate, and analytical. In this study, the judges’ reliance on the prosecutor’s recommendation (anchor) exemplifies System 1 thinking, where the initial anchor served as a heuristic shortcut, leading to biased decisions. Despite their professional training and the opportunity for System 2 thinking, the judges’ decisions were significantly influenced by the anchor, highlighting the powerful impact of System 1 processing in decision-making.

Question 50

Englich and Mulwesier Evaluation

Answer 50

The study’s true experimental design allows for a cause-and-effect relationship between the anchor value and sentencing decisions, demonstrating high internal validity. However, the use of an independent samples design introduces potential participant variability, which could serve as a confounding variable. The small sample size limits the generalizability of the findings, and the limited courtroom experience of the judges means the results are most applicable to younger, less experienced judges. Nonetheless, the pilot group helped establish reasonable anchors and showed the effectiveness of System 2 thinking in a controlled environment, contrasting with the System 1 thinking observed in the main conditions. Overall, the study effectively illustrates the influence of anchoring bias on professional decision-making and supports the dual processing theory.

Question 51

Holistic evaluation of dual process theory

Answer 51

Strengths:

• There is biological evidence that different types of thinking may be processed in different parts of the brain, and Neurophysiological evidence for two systems is increasing.
• Research is highly standardised and reliable
• The theory has been used to explain gambling addiction

Limitations:

• A lot of questions regarding the nature of the two systems and the interaction between them remain unanswered
• Some animals seem to display evidence of system 2 thinking, something that was thought to be unique to humans
• System 1 thinking can sometimes use concrete examples from experience in an abstract way to block a cognitive bias that would normally occur
• It is unclear exactly how we would expect a dual systems theory to be mapped in the brain
• The model is overly reductionist as it does not clearly explain how (or even if) these modes of thinking interact, or if emotion influences out thinking ( it is argued that there are several different systems of thinking, not just two)

Question 52

What is reconstructive memory?

Answer 52

What is meant by reconstructive memory?

• it is based on the idea that memories are not saved as complete, coherent wholes
• retrieval of memory is influenced by our perception, our beliefs, past experience, cultural factors and the context in which we are recalling the information
• schemas influence what we encode and what we retrieve from memory

Efforts after meaning

• Bartlett argued that we try to make sense of the past by adding our interpretations of events and deducing what most likely happened
• He argued that memory is an imaginative reconstruction of experience

Question 53

Reconstructive memory theory outline

Answer 53

“Memory is thought to be fallible, as memories are not saved as complete, coherent wholes, so every time it is recalled, it is pieced together, this can lead to inaccuracies in the memory recalled. The retrieval of memory is also influenced by our perception, our beliefs and past experiences, i.e. our schemas. These influence what we encode and what we retrieve from memory. Bartlett argued that we try to make sense of the past by adding our interpretations of events and deducing what most likely happened, he argued that memory is an imaginative reconstruction of experience. Loftus and Pickrell wanted to study whether memory was reliable and if we would reconstruct a ‘false memory.’”

Question 54

Loftus and Palmer APFC

Answer 54

Aim

The aim of Loftus & Palmer’s study was to investigate whether the wording of questions, specifically the use of leading verbs, could influence participants’ memory of an event. The researchers wanted to examine if these leading questions could distort participants’ estimates of speed in a car accident and their recollection of details, such as the presence of broken glass.

Procedure

The study consisted of two experiments:

• Experiment 1:
  
  • Participants: 45 students divided into five groups.
  • Design: Independent samples design.
  • Procedure: Participants watched seven short films of traffic accidents. After each film, they were asked to estimate the speed of the cars involved using a critical question with different verbs: “smashed,” “collided,” “bumped,” “hit,” or “contacted.” The researchers measured the mean speed estimates for each verb.
• Experiment 2:
  
  • Participants: 150 students randomly assigned to three groups.
  • Design: Independent samples design.
  • Procedure: Participants watched a 1-minute film depicting a multiple-car accident. They were then asked either about the speed of the cars using the verbs “smashed” or “hit,” or not asked about speed at all (control group). A week later, they were asked whether they saw any broken glass in the film, even though there was none.

Findings

• Experiment 1:
  
  • The verb “smashed” led to the highest mean speed estimate (40.8 mph), while “contacted” led to the lowest (31.8 mph).
• Experiment 2:
  
  • The “smashed” group had a higher mean speed estimate (10.46 mph) compared to the “hit” group (8.00 mph).
  • 16 participants in the “smashed” condition reported seeing broken glass, compared to 7 in the “hit” group and 6 in the control group.

Conclusion

The findings suggest that the wording of questions can influence both the participants’ estimates of speed and their memory of details from an event. The use of the verb “smashed” not only led to higher speed estimates but also increased the likelihood of participants incorrectly remembering seeing broken glass. This supports the theory of reconstructive memory, where post-event information can alter an individual’s memory of the original event, aligning it with their cognitive schemas.

Question 55

Loftus and Palmer Evaluation

Answer 55

• Strengths:
  
  • Control of Variables: The use of a laboratory setting allowed for control over confounding variables, establishing a clear cause-effect relationship between the verb used and the participants’ memory.
  • Reproducibility: The study’s clear and structured methodology allows for easy replication, which has been done in subsequent research.
• Weaknesses:
  
  • Low Ecological Validity: The artificial setting and the use of film clips instead of real-life experiences may limit the generalizability of the findings to real-world scenarios, such as actual eyewitness testimonies.
  • Sample Bias: The use of student participants, who may have been inexperienced drivers, could have affected their ability to accurately estimate speeds, limiting the applicability of the results to the general population.
  • Ethical Considerations: The study involved deception as participants were misled about the nature of the experiment, particularly concerning the presence of broken glass. However, this was necessary to avoid demand characteristics and ensure the validity of the findings.

Question 56

Loftus and Palmer Link

Answer 56

Loftus & Palmer’s study is closely linked to the concept of reconstructive memory, which suggests that memory is not a perfect recording of events but is influenced by various factors, including post-event information. In this study, participants’ memories were altered based on the wording of the questions they were asked, particularly through the use of leading verbs such as “smashed” or “hit.” These verbs influenced their estimates of speed and even led some participants to falsely recall seeing broken glass. This supports the idea that memory is reconstructive, as participants’ recollections were shaped by external cues provided after the event, demonstrating how memory can be distorted by suggestion and integrated with existing cognitive schemas.

Question 57

Loftus and Pickrell APFC

Answer 57

A (Aim):

The study aimed to see if false memories of personal events, like getting lost in a mall, could be created through suggestion.

P (Procedure):

24 participants were involved. A parent or sibling provided three real childhood memories and confirmed whether the participant had been lost in a mall. Participants were sent a questionnaire with four memories (three real, one false). They were asked to describe the events and were interviewed twice over four weeks, rating their confidence in each memory.

F (Findings):

About 25% of participants recalled the false memory of being lost in a mall but gave less detail and felt less confident about it.

C (Conclusion):

The study shows false memories can be created through suggestion, though not everyone is equally susceptible to forming them.

Question 58

Loftus and Pickrell Evaluation

Answer 58

Strengths of the study include its high ecological validity, as it focused on real-life memories, and the involvement of family members to verify events. However, the use of deception raises ethical concerns, and the fact that participants completed questionnaires at home introduces the possibility of contamination. Additionally, demand characteristics, like the social desirability effect, could have influenced participants’ responses.

Question 59

Loftus and Pickrell memory reliability link

Answer 59

This study demonstrates that memory is not entirely reliable, as 25% of participants “recalled” a false event. Although the majority did not form a false memory, the fact that some did shows that memories can be manipulated through suggestion. The lower confidence and detail in the false memory suggest that individuals may be able to distinguish between real and false memories, but the study highlights that under certain conditions, memory can be susceptible to distortion, raising concerns about the reliability of memory, especially in high-stakes situations like eyewitness testimony.

Question 60

Loftus and Pickrell reconstructive memory link

Answer 60

The study also illustrates the reconstructive nature of memory, as some participants “reconstructed” a false memory based on external suggestion. This supports the idea that memory is not a perfect recording of past events but is subject to alteration. When recalling the fabricated event, participants may have integrated elements of other real experiences (e.g., being lost in a different situation), leading to a distorted memory. The study reinforces the concept that memories are not static but can be reshaped by external influences, which has implications for fields like therapy and law, where memory reconstruction may play a critical role.

Question 61

Reconstructive memory holistic evaluation

Answer 61

• studies by Loftus done under controlled conditions are open to criticism. They often are artificial in nature. When watching a video of a car crash, one does not experience the emotions that one would experience when actually seeing a real car accident. Thus, emotion or stress, which are conditions normal for most eye-witnesses, are absent in her research. Many say that the studies lack ecological validity.
• The studies have been replicated and show a high degree of reliability
• There is evidence- for example, from the testimonies of Holocaust survivors- that shows what is seen in the laboratory is seen in real life. In the case of holocaust survivors, we have actual historical data which we can use to compare their memories to actual events and establish the level of accuracy.
• There are ethical concerns about manipulating a participants memories. In the Lost in the Mall study, deception is a real concern
• The research has been applied in order to improve the process of gathering data from eyewitnesses. In addition, it has been applied to better understand false memories that arise in therapy. This means that the research has had several different applications.

Question 62

Biases in thinking and decision-making

Answer 62

Heuristics

• a heuristic technique is any approach to problem solving or self discovery that employs a practical method that is not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect or even rational, but is sufficient for reaching an immediate estimation

These heuristics can lead to cognitive biases

• cognitive biases are systematic errors in judgement, while heuristics are mental shortcuts for decision making
• They’re linked because many biases stem from heuristics
• When the brain relies on heuristics to simplify complex information, it can lead to systematic errors or deviations from rationality, resulting in cognitive biases

Why do we study cognitive biases?

• There are several good resons for studying cognitive biases: they are of interest in their own right and have practical implications in mental diagnoses, and the study of these biases can explain the psychological processes on which thinking and decision making is based. These heuristics can lead to false diagnosis based on symptoms and prior experience

Anchoring Bias:

Our tendency to rely too much on the first piece of information that we are provided with.

• whenever we are exposed to an estimate we place our estimate close to that (it serves as an anchor)

Question 63

Tversky and Khaneman link paragraph on biases in thinking and decision making

Answer 63

This study by Tversky and Kahneman (1974) exemplifies how cognitive biases, specifically anchoring, influence human thinking and decision-making processes. Anchoring occurs when individuals rely too heavily on the first piece of information (the anchor) they encounter when making decisions. In this experiment, the initial number significantly skewed the participants’ estimates of the mathematical product, demonstrating how initial information can bias judgment even in simple tasks. This finding extends to real-world scenarios where anchoring affects various decisions, from financial forecasting to everyday estimations, highlighting the profound impact of cognitive biases on human behavior.

Question 64

Englich and Mulweiser link paragraph on biases in thinking and decision making

Answer 64

This study by Englich and Mussweiler (2001) illustrates the profound impact of cognitive biases on thinking and decision-making, specifically the anchoring effect. Anchoring occurs when an initial piece of information (the anchor) heavily influences subsequent judgments and decisions. In this legal context, judges’ sentencing decisions were significantly swayed by the prosecutor’s recommended sentence, regardless of its reasonableness. This finding underscores how even professional decision-makers are susceptible to cognitive biases, which can lead to systematic deviations from rational decision-making. The study highlights the need for awareness and mitigation strategies to reduce the influence of biases in critical areas such as the judicial system

Question 65

Biases in thinking and decision making holistic evaluation

Answer 65

• much of the research is very simplistic
• it is not clear how an individual chooses a specific heuristic in a specific situation
• there may be factors that influence whether a heuristic is employed
• much thought is unconscious, so we are not aware of what we are thinking when we are doing something - so being asked what we are thinking may result in demand characteristics

Question 66

The influence of emotion in cognitive processes

Answer 66

Emotion is defined as a complex psychological state that involves three distinct components: a subjective experience, a physiological response (bodily changes like increased heart rate) and a behavioural or expressive response (such as facial expressions or actions). Emotions are often triggered by internal or external stimuli and play a key role in influencing cognition, decision making and social interactions. They are considered adaptive, helping individuals respond to challenges and opportunities in their environments.

“Emotion plays a crucial role in shaping human memory, both positively and negatively, by influencing how memories are encoded, stored and retrieved”

Question 67

Emotion can positively impact memory

Answer 67

• emotions, particularly those associated with high levels of arousal (e.g. fear, joy, anger) can enhance memory by triggering the release of stress hormones like adrenaline and cortisol
• these hormones stimulate the amygdala, a brain structure crucial for processing emotions, and strengthen the consolidation of emotional memories in the hippocampus.

e.g. flashbulb memories

• brown and kulik defined a flashbulb memory as a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid ‘snapshot’ pf the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened
• flashbulb memories are highly detailed, vivid memories of emotionally significant events. These memories often include details such as where the person was, what they were doing, and how they felt when they learned about the event
• they suggested the special mechanism hypothesis, which argues for the existence of a unique biological mechanism. This mechanism is triggered when an event surpasses a certain threshold of emotional intensity or surprise, creating a permanent and vivid record of the details surrounding the experience
• this implies that flashbulb memories have different characteristics than “ordinary” memories. Brown and Kulik suggested that flashbulb memories are not only more vivid but also more resistant to forgetting

Emotional importance and personal relevance

• Emotional importance and personal relevance are key factors in determining whether a flashbulb memory will form. Events like public tragedies or personal milestones can trigger these types of memories

Are flashbulb memories really that accurate?

• Research since brown and kulik has debated the accuracy of flashbulb memories. While people report them as highly vivid, later studies suggest that flashbulb memories may not be any more reliable than ordinary memories and are also subject to distortion over time.

How are flashbulb memories created? What are the biological underpinnings?

• it is proposed that the creation of flashbulb memories involve the interaction between the amygdala and the hippocampus. This may explain why emotionally significant events are remembered more vividly
• critics of the special mechanism hypothesis argue that flashbulb memories may not rely on a unique biological mechanism but are instead a result of frequent rehearsal or repeated exposure to the event through the media and conversions

Question 68

Emotion can negatively impact memory

Answer 68

While moderate emotional arousal can enhance memory, extremely high levels of stress or anxiety can impair memory processes.

Prolonged exposure to stress hormones (e.g. cortisol) can damage the hippocampus, leading to difficulties in retrieving memories and even forming new ones

e.g. the ‘weapon focus effect’

• studies have shown that when someone witnesses a crime, their emotional focus may be on the weapon (due to fear or anxiety) causing them to remember fewer details about the perpetrator’s face or the surrounding context
• this effect shows how emotional arousal can impair memory by narrowing attention to emotionally charged stimuli

Question 69

Yerkes Dodson law

Answer 69

The Yerkes-Dodson law (1908) suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, including memory, where moderate arousal leads to better performance, while little or too much arousal impairs it.

This concept was applied to memory, particularly in the context of eyewitness testimony, by Deffenbacher (1933), who extended the Yerkes-Dodson Law to explain how stress and anxiety affect memory accuracy.

Deffenbacher proposed that moderate stress can enhance memory recall by focusing attention on relevant details, but when stress levels become too high, memory accuracy declines. This explains why, in highly stressful situations like witnessing a crime, the accuracy of eyewitness testimony may be compromised due to extreme emotional arousal, leading to memory distortion or forgetfulness

Question 70

Brown and Kulik APFC

Answer 70

Aim

The aim of Brown & Kulik’s 1977 study was to investigate whether surprising and personally significant events can lead to the formation of flashbulb memories, characterized by vivid and detailed recollections of where one was and what one was doing at the time of the event.

Procedure

The study involved 80 male participants (40 African American and 40 White Americans) who completed a questionnaire about their memories related to the deaths of significant public figures, such as President John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr., as well as someone they personally knew. Participants were asked to answer a series of questions regarding the circumstances surrounding their first awareness of these events, including their emotional reactions and the perceived importance of the events in their lives.

Findings

The researchers found that 90% of participants recalled detailed information about the day of the significant events. Notably, there was a marked difference in flashbulb memories based on personal relevance: 75% of Black participants reported having flashbulb memories of Martin Luther King’s assassination, while only 33% of White participants reported similar memories. This indicated that the emotional impact and personal significance of an event influence the vividness of the memory.

Conclusion

The study provides empirical support for the concept of flashbulb memories, demonstrating that emotionally charged and personally relevant events can lead to detailed recollections. However, the retrospective nature of the data collection limits the ability to establish causal relationships. Furthermore, the study’s cultural and gender biases suggest that findings may not be universally applicable.

Question 71

Brown and Kulik Link paragraph to emotion and memory

Answer 71

Emotion plays a critical role in memory formation, as evidenced by the concept of flashbulb memories. These vivid recollections often arise from events that evoke strong emotional responses, suggesting that heightened emotional states enhance memory encoding and retrieval. Research indicates that emotionally charged experiences activate specific brain regions, such as the amygdala, which is involved in processing emotions and can strengthen the consolidation of memories. This interplay between emotion and memory underscores the idea that significant life events not only create lasting memories but also shape individuals’ narratives and identities.

Question 72

Brown and Kulik evaluation

Answer 72

While Brown & Kulik’s study on flashbulb memories offers valuable insights into the impact of emotion on memory, several methodological limitations warrant consideration. First, the use of self-reported data in a retrospective questionnaire raises concerns about the accuracy and reliability of participants’ memories, as individuals may inadvertently reconstruct events based on current beliefs or societal expectations, leading to potential biases such as the social desirability effect. Additionally, the study’s sample was limited to American males, introducing gender and cultural biases that may affect the generalizability of the findings. The lack of a biological component and the inability to measure real-time emotional responses during the events further limit the study’s conclusions about causality. Moreover, the retrospective nature of the data means that researchers could not verify the level of surprise or the role of rehearsal in memory retention. These factors highlight the need for further research to explore the complexities of how emotion influences memory across different demographics and settings.

Question 73

Neisser and Harsch APFC

Answer 73

Aim:

The aim of Neisser & Harsch’s (1992) study was to investigate whether flashbulb memories, which are believed to be highly detailed and resistant to forgetting due to their emotional impact, are prone to distortion over time.

Procedure:

The study involved 106 Emory University students who were asked to complete a questionnaire the morning after the Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986. The questionnaire asked participants to recall details about how they first heard of the event, such as where they were, what they were doing, and who told them. 2.5 years later, 44 of the original participants were asked to complete the same questionnaire again. They were also asked to rate their confidence in the accuracy of their memories on a scale from 1 (just guessing) to 5 (absolutely certain). Semi-structured interviews were conducted later to see if additional cues could help participants revert to their original memories, and they were then shown their original responses from 1986.

Findings:

The researchers found significant discrepancies between the original memories and the recollections 2.5 years later. The average accuracy score was 2.95 out of 7, with 11 participants scoring 0 and 22 scoring 2 or less. Despite the low accuracy, the participants demonstrated a high level of confidence in their memories, with an average confidence rating of 4.17 out of 5. Cues presented during interviews had little effect in prompting more accurate recall, and participants were surprised when confronted with their original responses.

Conclusion:

Neisser & Harsch concluded that flashbulb memories are susceptible to significant distortion over time, even though people believe them to be accurate. The emotional salience of the event did not prevent memory distortion, but it may have contributed to participants’ high confidence in the accuracy of their memories. This study challenged the notion that flashbulb memories are immune to forgetting and distortion.

Question 74

Neisser and Harsch Link to emotion and memory

Answer 74

This study illustrates how emotion can affect memory by increasing the subjective vividness and confidence in the recollection, even when the actual accuracy is low. Despite the emotional intensity of the Challenger disaster, the memories of the participants became distorted over time, but their confidence in their memories remained high. This suggests that while emotional events may lead to a belief in accurate recall, emotions do not necessarily enhance the accuracy of memories, and can even lead to overconfidence in inaccurate recollections.

Question 75

Neisser and Harsch evaluation

Answer 75

The study’s longitudinal and prospective design is a strength, allowing researchers to track changes in memory over time. Method triangulation (using both questionnaires and interviews) added depth to the data collection. However, the study cannot be replicated due to its naturalistic design, and participant attrition (dropout) over time reduced the sample size. There were also confounding variables, such as participants’ exposure to media or discussions about the event, which were not controlled for. Although the study has high ecological validity, the high confidence ratings may have been influenced by demand characteristics, where participants felt pressured to show confidence in their memories.

Question 76

Influence of emotion on memory holistic evaluation

Answer 76

Strengths:

• supporting neurological evidence: the involvement of brain structures such as the amygdala and the hippocampus has been well-documented in studies of emotional memory. Research using techniques such as fMRI supports the idea that emotional arousal enhances memory consolidation, adding biological validity to psychological theories.
• experimental control: many studies done on emotional memory have high internal validity due to controlled environments. These studies allow researchers to isolate variables and establish clear cause and effect relationships between emotional arousal and memory processes.

Weaknesses:

• Cultural and individual differences

The extent to which emotions impact memory may differ across cultures and individuals. For example, collectivist vs. individualist cultures may emphasise different aspects of emotional events. Studies like Kulkofsky et al. suggests that while emotion plays a role in memory across cultures, the strength of the flashbulb memory formation may be influenced by the cultural importance of the event and whether it is personally relevant.

In recent analysis of cross cultural studies, Wang and Aydin (2008) tested this hypothesis and found that Chinese participants had fewer flashbulb memories of public events than participants from the USA, UK, Germany or Turkey, which lends support to the theory that culture affects the recall of emotional memories, because of its relation to expression of emotion and rehearsal.

• Ecological Validity:

Many lab based studies of emotion and memory, such as those investigating the Yerkes-Dodson law in a controlled setting, may lack ecological validity. In real world situations, the complexity of emotional experiences is difficult to replicate in a lab, raising questions about whether these findings apply to everyday life.

• Demand characteristics and artificiality

Some studies on emotion and memory, especially those involving staged events (like witnessing a crime or accident in an experiment), may induce demand characteristics or feel artificial to participants. This could effect their emotional reactions and, consequently, the results on memory recall.

• Ethical concerns

Including high levels of stress or emotional arousal in participants can raise ethical issues, especially in studies that use traumatic or distressing stimuli

• Correlational research

Much of the research is correlational, meaning it shows a relationship between emotion and memory but cannot confirm causality, leaving room for alternative explanations like rehearsal.

Weaknesses of FBM (Flashbulb memory) theory/ research:

1. Unclear biological mechanism

While FBM’s are linked to emotional arousal, the exact biological mechanism behind them is poorly understood, and the special mechanism hypothesis lacks strong empirical support.

1. Accuracy vs. Vividness

FBM’s may feel vivid and detailed, but studies like Neisser and Harsch show that they are prone to distortion and may not be more reliable/ accurate than ordinary memories