The Return to Order (1794-1799) Flashcards
the ‘bourgeois republic’ and the search for order
in this period the main goal was the search for order and stability. in October 1795 the new Thermidorian constitution went into effect. the new government consisted of a bicameral legislature and a five-man executive committee (directory). they were mostly former convention deputies. they continued to consolidate the essential revolutionary achievements. the only big difference was the relationship between the government and the lower classes; they were more excluded and the regime was dominated by the wealthy and educated.
the Thermidorian reaction
Thermidorians found themselves under pressure to dismantle the dictatorial apparatus of the terror. Jacobins were ordered to shut down, many prisoners were released, prominent architects of the terror were tired and executed, jeunesse doree harassed the sans-culottes and destroyed radical symbolism. a ‘white terror’ took place.
the defeat if the sans-culottes
sans-culottes in protest of the Thermidorian actions set up two massive protests. these were the last major and violent actions of popular activism and women’s action. no demands were respected and finally the demonstrators were pushed back. the repression that took place eliminated the organized popular movement and the last deputies who were willing to identify with the convention. this accelerated the action against the aspects related to the radical revolution.
counterrevolution and the constitution of 1795
the fall of radicalism left many open to ideas of restoring the monarchy both within and outside France. Guerrilla forces reorganized themselves in France and made contact with the British and emigres. the coalition was unsuccessful due to miscommunication.
at the same time the new constitution was being completed. its main aim was to prevent another dictatorial government emerging and thus excluded the poorer and uneducated citizens from voting and holding office. abolition of slavery was maintained.
administrative system remained highly centralized but powers were carefully divided. when the government aimed to avoid the removal of republicans then the counterrevolutionaries fought for exactly the opposite. the directory passed the law anyway and the ensuing uprising was suppressed with the help of military.
the directory
this period has been seen as a period of corruption, unscrupulous intrigue, fruitless confrontation but there are counter arguments to this very negative view. the system consolidated many institutions that were later very important, solidified foreign relations but it failed to inspire loyalty even among its members. it was led by men who were pushovers but despite the weaknesses it was able to restore some order. in ‘97 it reverted to metallic currency and consolidated public debt. it also systemized tax collection and imposed new types of taxes. its administrative effectiveness was shadowed by the inability to get rid of counterrevolutionary groups. consolidated new institutions that helped a new elite emerge. Paris became the world center for science and medicine. urban poor were treated with suspicion and an anti-catholic mindset created friction. the new system of conscription of ‘98 was also not welcome.
the directory, Europe and the colonies
the black colonial support was important in helping France gain initiative over the Spanish and the British. relations with the Americans became more bitter. soon they supported the black in Saint-Domingue and the French were left to watch how it moved towards independence. in Europe, the revolutionary war begun to look more like a conquest war in favour of the republican France. in April 1795 Prussia and France signed the Peace of Basel. the Spanish soon followed the Prussian example. in October ‘95 France annexed Belgium. in ‘96 and ‘97 they invaded into Germany and Italy and installed sister republics like in the Netherlands. popular opinion was anti-France.
the army had professionalized and was independent from the government. loyalties of the soldiers laid with their commanders and they became important in influencing domestic policies.
in ‘98 the France planned an expedition to Egypt which Bonaparte got the demand of.
the ‘politics of the balance’
directory was unable to achieve political stability at home. even in this period the religious issues remained divisive. instead of picking a side the government tried to balance in the middle and appease both sides. in May ‘96 they attacked the radical left. in ‘97 they also opposed the royalists. in ‘97, however, voters kept to conservative deputies (Clichyens) who among themselves kept arguing on the right course of action. the directory was also divided. Barras’ pro-republican triumvirate arranged for military support. on September 4, ‘97 they staged a coup and purged the directory and the councils from the right wing.
the ‘second directory’
this directory reverted to the militant republican rhetoric in its policies. many areas were put under state of siege and a new police force (gendarmerie) was helping to maintain order. they also increasingly spread republican culture. in sister republics it encourages coups that would lead to more radical leaderships. they introduced a regular system of conscription. when in ‘98 ne-Jacobins gained a voted majority they directory corrected the votes in a coup and installed their own backers.
in ‘98 it had to face a foreign coalition against France and the directory was not equipped to deal with a crisis. it was purged in June 18, 1799 after many defeats.
the fall of the directory
Napoleon Bonaparte returned from Egypt and sided with Sieyes after the purification of the directory. he had gained popular support and given up radical revolutionist ideas. on November 9, 1799 the coup was put into effect. the council was convened under the pretences of emergency and then forced to vote and give full powers to Bonaparte and Sieyes to prepare a new constitution.directory members had to resign and the public reaction to this (or the lack of it) showed how little support the directory had had.
