European Exploration and Conquest (1450-1650)

Question 1

the trade world of the Indian ocean

Answer 1

the Indian Ocean enabled exchange between China, India, Middle East, Africa and Europe. the trade in this area increased from the 7th until the 14th centuries. The cities on the coast had some form of autonomous self-government. South China Sea was the most developed area; port of Malacca gained importance in the 15th century. India was another important center; cities such as Calicut and Quilon were thriving commercial centers.

Question 2

Marco Polo

Answer 2

Venetian trader and explorer. he wrote tales about his travels between 1271-1295. his stories about the khan were very famous and created an image for the Europeans about life in the East.

Question 3

Ming dynasty

Answer 3

Mongols lost their power to them in 1368. The dynasty lasted until 1644. during their rule China entered a period of economic expansions, population growth and urbanization. China also took the lead in exploration (although they did not stray far from the areas of the Indian Ocean).

Question 4

admiral Zheng He

Answer 4

led Chinese fleet in explorations from 1405-1433. the main purpose of his voyages was diplomatic; China wanted to enhance their prestige and create connections. after his and the emperor’s death the Chinese explorations decreased marginally.

Question 5

trading states of Africa

Answer 5

by 1450 Africa had few large empires and hundreds of smaller states. from 1250-1517 the Mamluk Egyptian Empire was one of the most powerful of the continent (capital in Cairo). Ethiopia and the west coast Swahili-speaking states also engaged in the trade and were influential; cities such as Kilwa, Malindi, Mogadishu, Mombasa were quite well-off. in the 5th century most gold came from the west coast of Africa. the inland states benefitted from this prosperous trade as well. Mali kingdom emerged as a player in the overland trade route. Slaves were also sold.

Question 6

Mansa Musa

Answer 6

ruler of the Mali kingdom who also famously made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324/’25.

Question 7

the Ottoman Empire and Persian Empires

Answer 7

middle east was an intermediate region for trade between Europe, Africa and Asia. it also supplied goods such as silk and cotton. the faiths of these empires clashed. the empires also competed for economic reasons to have control over the eastern trade routes. By the 16th century the Ottomans controlled the sea trade in the eastern Mediterranean, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and the rest of North Africa (power also extended as fas west in Europe as Vienna).

Question 8

Sultan Mohammed II

Answer 8

r. 1451-1481. Ottoman ruler who captured Europe’s largest city Constantinople in 1453 and named it Istanbul. it was also made the capital of the empire.

Question 9

Genoese and Venetian middlemen

Answer 9

in the late middle ages these men controlled the European luxury trade with the East. in 1304 Venice established formal relations with the Mamluk Egypt. Venetian merchants specialized in spices, silks, carpets. They traded with European products like Spanish and English wool, German metal goods, Flemish textiles and silk cloth but turned to firearms and slaves fro more profit. Genoa originally dominated the northern route to Asia through the Black Sea. however, Genoese focused on finance from 15th century onwards and controlled areas from the Black Sea to the western Mediterranean.

Question 10

What were the causes of European Expansion?

Answer 10

economic reasons: after Black Death Europe was experiencing a revival and it had created a demand for luxury goods. because Ottomans had taken over the Middle East it was hard to fulfil these demands. This prompted the Europeans to find new trade routes. men in Spain (especially higher class citizens) found that at home economic opportunities lacked and, thus, many took to the seas. 
religious reasons: many European powers had a crusading spirit (mainly Spain) because of the victory over the Muslims in Granda and the spread of Christianity became important. a military mindset transferred to the explorers (adopted from the reconquista in Spain). 
curiosity: many explorers as well as rulers wanted the glory that came with exploits. they showed interest in learning about the new places and finding them.

Question 11

Christopher Columbus

Answer 11

a native Genoese. before setting out in the name of the crown, he was already an established seaman and navigator. He worked as a mapmaker in Lisbon. he was a devote Christian. sought a direct trade route to Asia and also aimed to spread Christianity (saw it as a missionary religion). he ‘discovered’ the Americas. he was rejected for funding in 1483 by the Portuguese and in 1486 by Ferdinand and Isabella, but in 1492 he got his backing from the Spanish monarchy. he died believing that he had reached his originally planned destinations. travelled to the Caribbean and back.

Question 12

Bartholomew Diaz

Answer 12

Portuguese explorer. aimed to find new trade routes but also to spread the Christian religion. in 1487 he rounded the Cape of Good Hope, but turned back due to storms and mutinies.

Question 13

Vasco da Gama

Answer 13

Portuguese explorer. aimed to find new trade routes but also to spread the Christian religion. in his travels he employed a local Indian pilot to guide his expedition from the East African coast to India. in 1497 (a decade after Diaz) rounded the Cape and reached the port of Calicut in India.

Question 14

Hernan Cortes

Answer 14

1485-1547. Spanish explorer and conquistador. reached Mexico and conquered the indigenous populous. in 1519 the Cuban governor sponsored his expedition, but he turned out to be too ambitious and the governor pulled his support. however, Cortes set sail before anyone had the chance to remove him.

Question 15

technological advancements

Answer 15

during the 15th century the Portuguese developed the caravel (three mast sailing ship, sternpost rudder), which was more manoeuvrable and required less men to handle. it could also carry more cargo and that made it able to sail further without stops. it could also be fitted with cannons and that made it quite powerful on the seas.
around 1410 Arab scholars reintroduced Europeans to Ptolemy's "Geography" (written in the 2nd century CE). this really improved medieval cartography. this introduced the idea of longitude and latitude, as well as the roundness of the world. it did not depict the Americas and also showed Asia being closer to Europe than it really was. 
the compass (originated in China) was brought to the west in Middle Ages. with the compass mariners could use a navigating technique known as 'dead reckoning.' in the late 15th century the Portuguese developed a new technique known as 'celestial reckoning,' which was done using an astrolabe.
gun powder also came to use, along with triangular lateen sails (allowed tacking against the wind).

Question 16

Portuguese overseas empire

Answer 16

the objectives for exploration were military glory, conversion of Muslims, quest to find gold, slaves, and an overseas route to Indian spice markets. the explorations started with many disappointments, but thanks to prince Henry’s sponsorships and undying interest, they continued. Conquered Ceuta in Morocco in 1415. in the 1420s they begun to settle in the islands of Madeira and the Azores. in 1443 the first African commercial settlement in Arguin was established. after Henry’s death the Portuguese established factories on the coast of Guinea and moved further inland. by 1500 they controlled the movement of African gold to Europe. they never established large settlements and never sought to control the politics and culture; they inserted themselves into the pre-existing trading systems. after the route to India around Africa was established a convoy set out every March. Lisbon became the entrance point for Asian goods into Europe. from 1500-1515 the Portuguese used bombardment and diplomacy to establish forts in Goa, Malacca, Calicut, and Hormuz. they never established a total trading monopoly on the Indian Ocean

Question 17

Prince Henry

Answer 17

1394-1460. He is nicknamed Henry the Navigator. son of the Portuguese king John I, he played an important role in the early stages of Portuguese exploration. he supported the study of geography and navigation. he also sponsored annual explorations down the western coast of Africa. personally never participated in the voyages.

Question 18

Spain’s voyages to the Americas

Answer 18

Spain sponsored Columbus in 1492 to find passage to the Indies from the west. Columbus was named a viceroy over any territory he discovered and he was promised 1/10 of the profits from the journey. After Canaries he landed on the Bahamas, which Columbus named San Salvador in 1492 October. he also went to Cuba which he believed to be close to the mainland. he never found evidence of a great empire, but he did believe gold was available. in his second voyages he subjugated the island of Hispaniola. he also brought settlers, agricultural seed and livestock.

Question 19

discovery of the Pacific by the Spanish

Answer 19

because Spain’s profits were practically nothing compared to what Portugal had, they renewed the search for a western passage to Asia. Magellan was sent out in 1519 by Charles V. out of five ships and about 270 men sent, only one made it back to Spain with 18 men aboard. they reached back in 1522. this was the first expedition that circumnavigate the entire globe. this expedition proved that the globe was much bigger than anybody had thought, but it also proved that the westward passage to the Indies was way too long and dangerous for commercial purposes.

Question 20

Treaty of Tordesillas

Answer 20

1494 agreement giving Spain everything to the west of an imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic Ocean and giving Portugal everything to the east. negotiated by Pope Alexander VI.

Question 21

Pedro Alvares

Answer 21

led an expedition in 1500 an discovered Brazil

Question 22

Pedro Alvares Cabral

Answer 22

led an expedition in 1500 and reached Brazil. they aimed for the Indies but accidentally ended up in Brazil.

Question 23

Ferdinand Magellan

Answer 23

1480-1521. Portuguese mariner. sailed to the coast of Brazil and south until the Cape Horn which he passed. He had reached the Pacific. after many died in the rough seas the remainder of his fleet sailed through the Islands of Indonesia and around the Cape of Good Hope and back home to Spain. he died somewhere in Malay Archipelago.

Question 24

early explorations of the northern europeans

Answer 24

the first expeditions by the English proved to be quite pointless (Cabot), as nothing spectacular was found in the northern parts of the Americas. the English did not establish colonies during their first expeditions. they trid again when news of riches travelled from Spain and Portugal to the north, but even then nothing of importance was found (Frobisher).
the French in their early travels didn’t find anything of importance either (Cartier). however, they did turn to an alternative source of trade in Canada itself: beavers and other furs started to be traded. like the Portuguese, they didn’t establish huge colonies but relied on trading with the locals.
fishing industries did develop thanks to the fish stocks they found (English, French and even Spanish) near Newfoundland.

Question 25

John Cabot

Answer 25

Genoese merchant who lived in London. he aimed to voyage to Brazil in 1497 but ended up in Newfoundland. he returned after the first trip and scouted the New England coast.

Question 26

Martin Frobisher

Answer 26

between 1576-1578 made three voyages in and around the Canadian bay.

Question 27

Jacques Cartier

Answer 27

Frenchman who between 1534-1541 made several voyages to explore St. Lawrence river in Canada to find a passage to Asia. expedition halted at the rapids near Montreal.

Question 28

Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires

Answer 28

due to rumours of a wealthy mainland civilization the Spanish governor of Cuba sponsored expedition to the Yucatan coast of the Gulf of Mexico. in 1519 Cortes set sail to the mainland. Cortes found translators and gained vital information about the empire. he established a settlement in Veracruz and named himself its military commander. to prevent his accompany from turning back he burned the ships he arrived in. he formed alliances with the subjugated empires who didn’t like the Aztec rule and through a hard struggle and smallpox outbreak they won in 1521. the systematic conquest of Mexico could now begin. the Spanish took the Incan empire. when Curco fell in 1533 they gained access to immense resources of gold and silver.

Question 29

Aztec empire

Answer 29

an alliance between the Mexica people and their conquered allies. rose rapidly in size and power in the 15th century. when the Spanish arrived, the empire was ruled by Moctezuma II (r. 1502-1520). the capital was located in Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). this was an advanced society with understanding of mathematics, astronomy, engineering. they had their own oral poetry and historical traditions. used a system of glyphs to write.

Question 30

Incan empire

Answer 30

a remote empire perched more than 9800 feet above sea level. they were isolated from the rest and new nothing about the other empires and how they did. they were bureaucratically very efficient. the empire was divided into four major regions containing eighty provinces and twice as many districts. they had developed a complex network of roads. used khipus for administrative bookkeeping. they raised llamas and other pack animals. when the Spanish invaded, the Incas were weakened by a civil war over succession and an epidemic of disease.

Question 31

Portuguese Brazil

Answer 31

this empire only had nomadic and settled people divided into small tribes who spoke many different languages. Thanks to Alvares’ discovery the Portuguese established trade networks with locals. the main good was brazilwood which was a good source for red dye. in the 1520s the Portuguese settlers brought in sugarcane and originally used enslaved indigenous people to work the plants. however, the decline in the original workforce resulted in bringing in African slaves.

Question 32

colonial empires of northern powers

Answer 32

in the early 17th century the Spanish were weakened and the northern European powers profited from it. they created their own multi-sited overseas empires. both powers had settler communities in northern America and plantations in the Caribbean, as well as scattered trading posts in the coasts of West Africa and Asia. the northern powers conducted initial colonizations with the help of chartered companies rather than monarchical sponsorship.
the empires defied the Spanish control in the Carribbean.

Question 33

English colonial empire

Answer 33

first english colony was in Roanoke in 1585 (North Carolina). in 1607 a colony of Virginia at Jamestown was founded. in the 1670s English colonizers from the Caribbean settled in Carolina were they could start up huge rice plantations. during the late 17th century African slaves were the main workers and a harsh racial divide appeared. many moved to the New World initially due to religious reasons (protestants). Some colonies in the North: 1620 Plymouth Colony, 1630 Massachusetts Bay Colony which divided into Providence, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Haven. In the north slavery was a minor element of life. the English did not incorporate the indigenous peoples into their settlements. due to the less organized and centralized nature of the English colonization, the colonies had more autonomy.
at some point the crown became more invested in colonies and tried to unify the scattered english settlements to minimize Dutch and French influences. this resulted in the mid-Atlantic colonies of Maryland (1632), New York (1664), Pennsylvania (1681).
english assumed control on Bermuda (1612), Barbados (1627), and other islands.
english colonies were largely agricultural.

Question 34

French colonial empire

Answer 34

French colonies were mainly focused on trading (more similar to Portuguese settlements). French settled in areas of Canada. the first permanent settlement was created by Samuel de Champlain in 1608 at Quebec. Ville-Marie (Montreal) followed in 1642. Jean-Baptiste Colbert established direct royal control over the New France. while the crown tried to enlarge the population by sending colonists the French movement to the New World was minuscule compared to that of the British and Spanish.
following the river south, they moved into much of North America in the 1670s and 1680s. in 1673 they claimed possession of both sides of the river as far south as Arkansas and in 1682 they reached the Gulf of Mexico and assumed control in Louisiana.
French assumed control of Cayenne (1604), St. Christophe (1625), Martinique and Guadeloupe (1635), Saint-Domingue (1697).

Question 35

colonial administration

Answer 35

The original explorations were all made privately. Spain and Portugal, however, assumed control over territories fast. Catholic church played an important role in both powers’ territories.
in 1503 Spain granted the port of Seville monopoly over all traffic in the New World. they also established the House of Trade to oversee economic matters. in 1523 they added the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies to their administration. originally, Spanish colonies were divided into viceroyalties (New Spain (1535), capital in Mexico City, Peru (1542), capital in Lima). in the 18th century two more were added (New Granada, Bogota as center and La Plata, Buenos Aires as center). the imperial government exercised military and civil authority. viceroy presided over the audiencia. in each city there was a municipal council (cabildo).
Portugal had a similar system. India House of Lisbon was almost like the Spanish House of Trade. in 1530s, to oversee Brazil, they created a system of captaincies. Bahia was the sight of the capital and Salvador the sight for the governor and royal officials.
by the end of the 17th century, the French had followed in the previous two’s footsteps and assumed direct control. military governors ruled alongside intendants.
English colonies, following English traditions, had their own representative governments set up in their colonies. they were fairly autonomous and dealt with their own local affairs. wealthy landowners and merchants dominated the assemblies, but common men had more say than in the original homeland.

Question 36

loss of indigenous population and economic exploitation

Answer 36

the Spanish made use of the encomienda system. in 1512 the law was authorized and called for fair treatment but it led to abuse, overwork, beatings, sexual violence. this led to a discussion in Spain about the treatment of indigenous people. Charles I put in place the New Laws in 1542 to limit the authority of the encomienda holders. these laws led to revolts in the New World and were not enforced much. the crown did assume more control in the center of the empire.
due to the loss of populous, new systems of repartimiento and mita were put in place.
many local peoples died due to direct conflict but more so due to infectious diseases brought in by the Europeans. overworking and exhaustion led to malnutrition, reduced fertility rates, starvation.
this pattern not only happened in Spanish colonies but in every European colony.
due to this loss the Atlantic slave trade was brought into existence.

Question 37

life in the colonies

Answer 37

things that influenced the way life was lived included geographical location, pre-existing cultures, patterns of settlement, policies and cultural values of Europeans.
women played an important role. the first explorers used the native women to translate and guide them in the new world. depending if the European women were present in the colonies, the characteristics of the colonies differed; with women the European cultures, languages and way of life dominated but the lack of them meant that European men would acclimate themselves to the local cultures that largely retained their original form.
the English traditions drew strict lines between civilized and savage and, thus, even with the lack of Englishwomen it was not common to tie oneself to local women. in French colonies authorities encouraged the colonists to create relationships with locals.
the largest number of women crossing the Atlantic came from Africa in the form of slaves. the mixing of so many different ethnicities led to children born out of mixed unions. some colonies (Spanish, French, Portuguese) treated children of color better and gave them more freedom than others (English).

Question 38

the columbian exchange

Answer 38

the travel of people and goods between the Old and New Worlds which led to an exchange of animals, plants, and disease.

Question 39

sugar and slavery

Answer 39

this is the era were slavery started to be related to race more and more. the history of slavery intertwined with the history of sugar plantations. because sugar is such a hard crop to grow in terms of planting and processing and also in terms of its growing season (basically constant) and it requires a huge work force all-year-round slaves were the perfect workers.
transatlantic slave trade begun in 1518 with Charles V’s authorization of using African slaves in the Americas.

Question 40

Spanish silver and its economic effects

Answer 40

in 1545 the Spanish discovered a huge source of silver in Potosi. by 1550 the mine there contributed around 60% of all silver mined in the world at the time. Zacatecas and Guanajuato were the two other mines in Mexico.
in the 16th century the Spanish world saw a rise in population and consequently a rise in the demand of luxury goods. due to the lack of workers (expelled Jews and Muslims) they could not meet those demands. widespread inflation occurred (rise in production costs and further decline in the productive capacity).
after 1600, when the population declined again, the situation started to return to normal.
the silver that Philip II used to pay his depts and army made sure that the financial difficulties transferred to other nations.

Question 41

birth of global economy

Answer 41

the first time in history where the entire world was linked in trade. Portuguese were the first worldwide traders, followed by the Spanish. at the end of the 16th century, the Dutch started to challenge the two main players.

Question 42

religious conversion

Answer 42

Jesuit missionaries were active in Japan and China (16th-17th centuries). many different groups of Christians crossed over to the New World and started their missionary work. Catholic friars were one of the first to show interest in understanding the new cultures and languages they encountered. initial conversion efforts were successful. however, the melding of Christianity and paganisms could not be avoided entirely.

Question 43

Bartolome de Las Casas

Answer 43

1474-1566. a Dominican friar and one of the first and most outspoken critics of the brutal treatment inflicted on the indigenous peoples.

Question 44

Juan Gines de Sepulveda

Answer 44

believed that conquest and forcible conversion were necessary and justified to save the indigenous people from the horror of human sacrifice, cannibalism, and idolatry.

Question 45

Michel de Montaigne

Answer 45

1533-1592. frenchman. he created a new literary genre: the essay. in 1580, he published his work ‘Essays’ in French (accessibility to regular people). his work had short reflections based on his readings of the ancient texts, his experience as a government official, and his own moral judgement. he rejected the notion that one culture is superior to the other.