Reformations and Religious Wars (1500-1600) Flashcards
What were the preliminary reasons for undermining the Roman Catholic Church and its clergy?
papal conflict with the German Emperor Frederick II (13th century), Babylonian captivity, the Great Schism, 15th century popes building up family power and patronage for art was also damaging, papal tax collection methods were criticized
anticlericalism
opposition to the clergy, mostly focused on clerical immorality, ignorance and pluralism, absenteeism
Martin Luther
1483-1546, born in Eisleben Saxony, studied law but he ended up with the Augustinians. German university professor and priest, ordained a priest in 1507, from 1512-1546 served as a professor of scriptures in the university of Wittenberg
faith alone, grace alone, scripture alone
Luther’s new ideas on belief summed up
Pope Leo X
authorized the sale of indulgences in Germany to get money for a building project in Rome
Albert of Mainz
archbishop in the area were Wittenberg was located, promoted the sales to get rid of his own financial problems
indulgence
a document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sin
Johann Tetzel
Dominican friar who ran the sale of indulgences
Nintey-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences
written in 1517 by Luther to Albert of Mainz to give forth his criticism of the sale
Diet of Worms
1521, summoned by Charles V, there Luther gained an even wider audience to his ideas
Ulrich Zwingli
1484-1531, Swiss humanist, priest, admirer of Erasmus. in 1519 he decided to preach from Erasmus’ New Testament rather than the church’ prescribed work. criticized indulgences, Mass, institution of monasticism clerical celibacy
Protestants
the name originally given to followers of Luther, which came to mean all non-Catholic Christian Western Christian groups
translation of the New Testament into German
1523, by Luther
radicals
groups of people who insisted that a more extensive break from the privileged ideas would be accomplished
Anabaptism
baptism of adult believers
Quakers, Baptists, Congregationalists, and the authors of the US constitution
their beliefs were traced back to the radical ideas of the 16th century
the German Peasants’ War
1525, strengthened the authority of the lay rulers, peasants’ economic conditions improved to a certain extent. Luther and Zwingli stood agains the peasants
Katharina von Bora
1499-1532, a former nun, Luther’s wife
Anna Reinhart
1491-1538, Zurich widow, Zwingli’s wife
marriage in Protestantism
denied it being a sacrament, but it was an important aspect of life (and religion). the perfect marriage was one that reflected the spiritual equality of men and women and the proper social hierarchy of husbandly authority and wifely obedience. most Protestant allowed divorce and remarriage. prostitution was condemned.
women in protestantism
it was maintained that women were to be subjected to men. upper class women’s main occupation turned out to be the main job as going to convents was not encouraged much anymore. importance of marriage caused the unmarried women (and men) to be suspected as they did not belong to a nicely regarded household. some women started writing religious works too (Argula von Grumbach). women could not be members of clergy.
Frederick III
1415-1493. Holy Roman Emperor from 1452 until his death. A Habsburg.
Maximilian I
1459-1519. Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death. A Habsburg.
Eleonore of Portugal
1434-1467. Frederick III wife and Holy Roman Empress in.
Habsburgs dynasty
originated in Austria. one of the most influential and powerful families in Europe at the time. through advantageous marriages across generations they became an international power.
Charles V
1500-1558. A Habsburg and Holy Roman Emperor. Archduke of Austria from 1519, King of Spain from 1516 and Lord of the Netherlands from 1506. defender of Catholicism. Abdicated in 1556 and gave power over his holdings to his son Philip and imperial power to his brother Ferdinand.
Religious wars in Switzerland and Germany
First area of conflict was Switzerland and some areas remained Catholic and other turned Protestant (1520s). the two sides went into war. Zwingli was killed on the battlefield in 1531. after that a treaty was struck (cantons decided their religion) Northern Germans and Souther German cities formed an alliance after Imperial Diet. Due to Charles being occupied in the war with the French, he could not retaliate militarily. fighting begun in 1546 and initially Charles was successful. When the pope pulled his support and the French started sending money to Lutherans the tides turned. Charles agreed to the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.
Imperial Diet
called by Charles V in 1530 to avoid further religious division. met at Augsburg where the protestants presented the Augsburg Confession and that resulted in Charles demanding them to return to Catholicism. This caused the further spread of violence to German areas.
Habsburg-Valois wars
1521-1559. fought between French Valois and Austrian Habsburgs in Italy along the eastern and southern borders of France and eventually Germany. ended by the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis.
Peace of Augsburg
ended the Religious wars in Germany in 1555. Allowed each territory to choose their religion. North and center of Germany became Lutheran and south remained Roman Catholic. no freedom of religion was granted in the territories; dissidents of the areas’ chosen Church had to leave or convert and only Lutheranism became recognized as a choice.
Christian III
King of the Denmark-Norway Kingdom. r. 1536-1559. first area outside the origin place to officially accept reformation under Christian. 1530s, the king officially broke with the Catholic Church. In Denmark it was a peaceful process but in Norway and Iceland there were violent uprisings and the new religion was imposed gradually on an unwilling populous.
Gustavus Vasa
king of Sweden. r. 1523-1560. took the throne during a civil war with Denmark. protestantism spread under his rule in Sweden but the theology was not officially accepted until later in the century.
Henry VIII
king of England. r. 1509-1547. in the 1530s Henry used the parliament to remove the English Church from papal power. he became the supreme head of the Church in England. conservative in nature, but decided to ‘reform’ the church out of personal interest and less out of religious, economic and political reasons.
Catherine of Aragon
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. king of England Arthur’s wife and later his brother’s Henry VIII’s. Queen of England.
Mary Tudor
Catherine’s and Henry’s daughter. r. 1553-1558. during her reign a sharp turn back to Catholicism. she married her cousin Philip II of Spain, which was very unpopular in England. she executed many protestants and that alienated her further from her subjects.
Anne Boleyn
lady-in-waiting. Henry’s second wife. beheaded in Henry’s orders in 1536, when she was unable to produce a male child. Elizabeth I’s mother.
Thomas More
chancellor of the king of England. author of “Utopia.” beheaded because he opposed Henry VIII when he cut England’s ties with the Roman Catholic Church.
Jane Seymore
Henry VIII’s third wife. Mother of King Edward VI
Thomas Cromwell
chief minister of Henry VIII. influenced Henry VIII quite a bit (English bible became a norm in the Church thanks to him). influenced Henry to dissolve English monasteries for economic reasons.
Thomas Cranmer
Archbishop of Canterbury. appointed by T. Cromwell. also helped to bring about the use of an English bible. simplified liturgy, invited Protestant theologians to England, prepared the first “Book of Common Prayers” in 1549.
the English Church
called the Anglican Church. started with Henry VIII. confession, clerical celibacy and transubstantiation were maintained. English bible begun circulating. nationalisation of the Church; due to this England saw a growth of modern centralized bureaucratic state. services took place in English. clergymen were allowed to marry but the church remained hierarchical.
Pilgrimage of Grace
popular opposition in the North of England against the new changes in Church led to a rebellion in 1536. it was the largest rebellion of its type that England saw. the pilgrims did eventually agree to a truce but their leaders were arrested and executed after trial.
Edward VI
r. 1547-1553. he was quite a sickly man and ruled for a very short time. protestantism rooted itself more.
Philip II of Spain
r. 1556-1598. Mary Tudor’s husband.
Elizabeth I
r. 1558-1603. Mary’s half-sister. she had been raised as a protestant. she started to build the foundations for religious stability. Elizabeth chose to pursue politics in the middle point; away from the most fanatic Roman Catholic and Protestant wishes. she was the supreme power in matter of religion and politics. subjects were required to attend English Church and protestant preaching was a norm. she did not intervene with people’s privately held beliefs.
Spanish Armada
the fleet sent by Philip II of Spain in 1558 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism and the English fleet defeated it. the defeat enabled England to continue in its protestant path.
Mary Queen of Scots
r. 1560-1567. Elizabeth’s cousin. Catholic. As she was next in line to Elizabeth, she became the center of Catholic plots against Elizabeth and the Anglican Church.
John Calvin
1509-1564. born in France. also studied law. in 1533 he converted to protestantism. Created the Calvinist religion. from 1541 onwards he helped to establish a christian society in Geneva that would see church and state working together. Geneva became the model of Christian community. Calvinism served as an example to Scottish and French protestantism but also protestantism in England and new England.
The Institutes of the Christian Religion
Calvin’s formulation of Christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for Protestantism. first published in 1536 and in its final form in 1559.
predestination
the teaching that God has determined the salvation or damnation of individuals based on his will and purpose, not on their merit or works.
John Knox
1505?-1572. dominated the protestantism movement in Scotland and his efforts led to establishment of the states Church.
Jan Hus
created the Hussite Church in Bohemia even before Luther’s time. He was executed as a heretic.
Poland-Lithuania and reformation
by 1500 they were governed by the same king, senate and diet. however, the territories did retain separate judicial systems, officials, armies, and forms of citizenship. this territory had a very diverse population. Lutheranism only appealed to Germanized cities while Calvinism was more readily accepted by Polish. however, thanks to the effort of the Jesuits, by 1650s Poland was again Roman Catholic.
Hungary and reformation
Lutheran ideas did spread and found support but many remained infatuated with the Roman Catholicism. in 1526 the kingdom was divided into three: Ottoman Empire in the great plains and capital Buda, Habsburgs in the north and west and eastern parts with Transylvania was held by a Ottoman supported Zapolya. in 1699, when Ottomans withdrew, Catholicism was restored.
Pope Paul III
pontificate 1534-1549. with Paul, the papal court begun to act as the center of reform movement rather than its opposer. Paul and his supporters but effort in educating the clergy, put an end to simony and started to control clerical life more strictly. in 1542 he established Holy Office. he also called a general council, which met from 1545-1563 at Trent.
Holy Office
The official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat the international doctrinal heresy.
Tersa of Avila
1515-1582. Carmelite nun in Spain. she went around Spain and reformed her Carmelite order and created new convents to combat the protestant takeover of Catholic churches.
Angela Merici
1474-1540. founded the Ursuline order of nuns, which focused on educating women. her goal was to re-christianize the society by training future wives and mothers. the order got papal approval in 1565 and it helped them to spread to France and the New World.
Ignatius Loyola
1491-1556. founded the Jesuits. they played an important international role in strengthening and spreading Catholicism. he wrote “Spiritual Exercises” in 1548.
Francis I
r. 1515-1547. French king. tried to raise income and revenue by selling public offices and making peace with the papacy. Catholic.
Henry II
r. 1547-1559. King of France who was accidentally killed.
Huguenots.
French calvinists. they mostly resided in big cities in France.
Catherine de Medici
Henry II’s wife. she was very important for the rule of her two sons after Henry as she tried to keep and make peace. she meddled in the state affairs quite a bit. she helped to orchestrate the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
- A planned out savage Catholic attack on Calvinists in Paris. this was a time when Margaret Valois married the prince of Navarra Henry (future Henry IV).
politiques
Catholic and Protestant moderates who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from collapsing.
Henry III
French king after his father Henry II and before Henry IV. he was assassinated.
Henry IV
first Huguenot king of France. very experienced military man and diplomat. converted between religion many times either due to force, necessity or want. issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which granted liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to protestants.
Netherlands and protestantism
mostly Calvinists by 1560s. when Philip tried to suppress the protestants and raised taxes, riots rose in the 1560s. Eventually after years of war the northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht and in 1581 declared their independence from Spain. the South remained Catholic. hostilities ended only in 1609 when Spain recognized the independence.
witch-hunt
increasing persecution begun already in the 1480s. it became very common in the 1560s and lasted until about 1660s. Witches were persecuted and executed by both, catholics and protestants.
inquisitions
the most well-known ones took place in Spain, Italy, and Portugal. sometimes they were looking for witches, but often also just heretics.
