The Expansion of Europe (1650-1800)

Question 1

open field system

Answer 1

cultivatable land was divided into large fields and those in turn were divided into long, narrow strips. the fields were open. this system also used traditional plowing, sowing, harvesting techniques and soil exhaustion was a normalcy. traditional village rights also kept the tradition of communal farming.

Question 2

rotating crops

Answer 2

a new innovation that proved tremendously useful as it enabled to forgo the unproductive fallow period. rotation happened between grain, peas, beans, turnips, potatoes, clover and grasses.

Question 3

growing herds

Answer 3

this meant more manure for fertilizing and restoring the soil but also enabled people to eat more meat and dairy products, as well as use more animal power to work the fields and transport goods.

Question 4

enclosure

Answer 4

the movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of poor peasants who relied on common fields for farming and pasture.

Question 5

Dutch Republic as the pioneer in agricultural advancements

Answer 5

mid-seventeenth century already saw the intensive farming practices, enclosed fields, continuous rotation, heavy manuring, wide variety of crops present in the Dutch Republic. agriculture was highly specialized and mercialized. drainage of swamps and creation of artificial land was successfully done. this lead in innovations was due to dense population and growing towns and cities.

Question 6

Cornelius Vermuyden

Answer 6

one of the famous engineers and experts of drainage who also led extensive drainage projects in Yorkshire and Cambridgeshire.

Question 7

Jethro Tull (1674-1741)

Answer 7

an English innovator. he tried to create better mehtods of farming though empirical research. he wanted to use horses for plowing and aimed to use drilling equipment to sow seed.

Question 8

English advancements in agriculture

Answer 8

Jethro Tull was a prominent figure. The tradition of racing and fox-hunting led to selective breeding of horses, and other animals, which also came in handy in agriculture.
prior to 1700 enclosure in England was done privately and from 1760s to 1815s series of Parliamentary acts enclosed the remaining common lands. enclosure led to rise of capitalist market-oriented estate agriculture and emergence of a landless rural proletariat.

Question 9

Arthur Young

Answer 9

agricultural specialist who celebrated the enclosure as a necessary means to achieve progress.

Question 10

population growth patterns until 1700

Answer 10

growth was slow and followed an irregular cyclical pattern. Black Death (1348-1350) caused a sharp decline in population and food prices after 1350. this also led to labour shortage. mid-sixteenth century saw a return to the pre-plague numbers in population. after 1500 population growth was bigger than production. this development led to stagnation or decline of population. seventeenth century saw a modest growth in population. locally there were declines and growths during the seventeenth century. (famine, epidemics, wars)

Question 11

population growth post 1700

Answer 11

in the 18th century growth took place unevenly with some areas experiencing quick growth and others slower growth. However, explosive growth took place everywhere. this was due to more babies being born, better opportunities for employment, decline in (infant) mortality rates and disappearance of the bubonic plague., ‘vaccine’ against small pox. there were improvements made in water supply and sewage. supply of food was better guarded and managed and transportation methods saw an improvement. a very big contributor to the growth was agricultural production rise.

Question 12

cottage industry

Answer 12

a stage of industrial development in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market.

Question 13

putting-out system

Answer 13

the 18th century system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers, who processed them and returned the finished products to the merchants.

Question 14

division of workers

Answer 14

until the 19th century most people worked in textile industries. many people were working as spinsters to earn extra money as cottage industries did not have enough man power to produce enough thread for output.

Question 15

John Kay

Answer 15

invented a flying shuttle, which enabled the weaver to move it back and forth with one hand.

Question 16

Industrious revolution

Answer 16

the shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing for household consumption; this reduced the economic self-sufficiency but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods.

Question 17

guild system

Answer 17

the organization of artisanal production into trade-based associations, or guilds, each of which received a monopoly over its trade and the right to train apprentices and hire workers. guild members had to be Christian males with several years of work experience, who payed membership fees and who had completed a masterpiece.

Question 18

economic liberalism

Answer 18

idea derived from Adam Smith’s thoughts. a belief in free trade and competition based on Smith’s argument that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all individuals, rich and poor.

Question 19

Navigation Acts

Answer 19

a series of English laws that controlled the import of goods to Britain and British colonies. the main aim was to overthrow the flourishing g Dutch commerce which was successful as the Dutch Republic started to fall behind by the late 17th century. second target was France.

Question 20

War of the Spanish succession

Answer 20

1701-1713. war started when Louis XIV put his grandson the Spanish throne and it threatened British presence in the Americas. Louis was forced to sign the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 which also resulted in Britain gaining some of France’s coloniesand a few Spanish.

Question 21

War of the Austrian Succession

Answer 21

1740-1748. this conflict started between Prssia and Austria but evolved and soon British and french colonies in India and North America saw fighting.

Question 22

Seven Years’ War

Answer 22

1756-1763. France aided Austria and England supported Prussia. Treaty of Paris ratified British victory on all colonial fronts and British navy had triumphed decisively.

Question 23

triangle trade

Answer 23

European commodities (guns, textiles) to Africa; enslaved Africans to the colonies; colonial goods (cotton, tobacco, sugar) back to Europe.

Question 24

debt peonage

Answer 24

a form of serfdom that allowed a planter or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual debt bondage by periodically advancing food, shelter and a little money

Question 25

Atlantic slave trade

Answer 25

the forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labour on plantations and in other industries; the trade reached its peak in the 18th century and ultimately involved more than 12 million Africans.

Question 26

creole

Answer 26

people of Spanish ancestry born in the Americas.

Question 27

colonial elites

Answer 27

became americanized by adopting native foods, remedies. they became increasingly opposed to the regulations and taxes imposed by colonial bureaucrats. they did retain some european characteristics (theters and entertainment, thoughts and fashion) but it became increasingly differentiated.

Question 28

leading enlightenment thinkers in the colonies

Answer 28

Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin,

Question 29

Dutch East India company

Answer 29

created in 1602, took over Portuguese spice trade in the Asian trade market.

Question 30

English East India company

Answer 30

created in 1600. out-made the Dutch after the 18th century failures of the Dutch.

Question 31

James Cook

Answer 31

captain who in 1770 claimed the east coast of Australia and named it New South Wales. was killed by Hawaiians in 1779 having chartered most of the Pacific ocean for the first time.