The Nervous System Part 1: The ANS Flashcards
The ANS
- Effector organs: ..?.. control of ..?.. muscle, ..?.. muscle and ..?..
- Efferent pathways and ganglia: uses ..?.. neurons- ..?.. neuron (in the CNS, thin and lightly ..?..); ..?.. neuron in the the ..?.. ganglion ..?.. the CNS (thinner and ..?..). Conduction is ..?… Many pre and postganglionic fibres are incorporated into ..?../..?.. nerves. 1 ..?.. and 2 ..?.. with ganglions
- Target organ response to neurotransmitters: effect may be ..?.. or ..?… Releases ..?.. or ..?..
- involuntary; smooth; cardiac; glands
- two; preganglionic; myelinated; post ganglionic; autonomic; outside; nonmyelinated; slower; spinal; cranial; afferent; efferent
- excitatory; inhibitory; ACh; norepinephrine
Somatic NS
- Effector organs: ..?.. ..?.. muscle control
- Efferent pathways and ganglia: motor neuron cell ..?.. are in the ..?… Axons extend as ..?.. or ..?.. nerves to the muscles they innervate. Fibres are ..?.. and heavily ..?… They conduct impulses ..?… There is 1 ..?.. and 1 ..?.. with no ..?… Receptors are directly on ..?..
- Target organ responses to neuro transmitters: effect is always ..?… All somatic motor neurons release ..?..
- voluntary; skeletal
- bodies; CNS; spinal; cranial; thick; myelinated; rapidly; afferent; efferent; ganglion; target organs
- excitatory; ACh
What other systems is the ANS divided into?
- Sympathetic NS
- Parasympathetic NS
Where does the sympathetic NS originate from?
Thoracolumbar region
Where does the parasympathetic NS originate from?
Cranial and sacral regions
Describe the length of the preganglionic and postganglionic neurones in the ANS
- Sympathetic NS: short pre and long post
- Parasym NS: long pre and short post
What are the ganglionic neurotransmitters involved in the ANS?
- Sym NS (white communication rami): ACh
- Parasym NS: ACh
What are the postganglionic neurotransmitter and transmission involved in the ANS?
- Sym NS: norepinephrine (also stims adrenal medulla to release NE)
- Parasym NS: ACh
Fibres that release ACh are called..?..
Cholinergic fibres
Fibres that release norepinephrine are called ..?..
Adrenergic fibres
Noradrenaline:
- Synthesis: synthesis from ..?.., occurs at the ..?..
- Storage: in ..?.. in second neuron ….. nerve endings
- Release: released when an ..?.. reaches the ..?.. (and Ca2+ dependent ..?..)
- Breakdown: a little bit is absorbed by the ..?.. and metabolized by ..?.. (COMT)
- Degradation: some by ..?.. (MAO) in ..?..)
- Termination of effects: most ..?.. by the ..?..(some stored in ..?.. again)
Tyrosine; nerve terminal
- vesicles; sympathetic
- AP; nerve ending; exocytosis
- effector cells; catecol-O-methyl-transferase
- mono-amine-oxidase; mitochondria
- reabsorbed; nerve endings; vesicles
Acetylcholine:
- Synthesis: from ..?.. and choline by ..?..
- Storage: in synaptic ..?.. in ..?..
- Release: released when an ..?.. reaches the ..?.. (and ..?.. dependent ..?..)
- Degradation: ..?.. (AChE) in the synaptic cleft and ..?.. membrane (split into ..?.. and ..?.., choline gets re-uptaken in the ..?.. membrane)
- Termination of effects: ACh binds only ..?.. to receptors. Following ..?.. from the receptor, the ACh is rapidly ..?.., choline is actively ..?.. by the ..?.. and ..?.. in synthesis
- acetyl coenzyme A; choline; acetyltransferase
- vesicles; nerve endings
- AP; nerve ending; CA2+; exocytosis
- acetylcholinesterase; postsynaptic; choline; acetic acid; presynaptic
- bteiefly; dissociation; hydrolysed; reabsorbed; nerve endings; re used
Describe the principal receptors, ion channels and second messenger systems involved in mediating the autonomic actions of:
Noradrenalin on adrenergic receptors and target tissues
G protein-coupled receptors resulting in a cAMP second messenger cascade, which in turn stimulates protein kinase
Describe the principal receptors, ion channels and second messenger systems involved in mediating the autonomic actions of:
Acetylcholine in ganglia and at target tissues
- Nicotinic: ..?.. gated ion channel; allows ..?.. and ..?.. diffusion and ..?… Nicotinic receptor is used as the ..?.. (skeletal) – ions used because its ..?..
- Muscarinic: ..?.. receptor resulting in a ..?.. cascade, mainly ..?.. and ..?.. (IP3). Muscarinic receptors are involved in ..?.. control, ..?.. muscles; e.g. mucus
- ligand; Na+; K+; depolarisation; NMJ; fast
- G-coupled protein; second messenger; catamount; inositol triphosphate; exocrine; smooth
Explain the mechanism of action in each case, describe the changes in target tissue function
- alpha 1adrenergic
- mechanism of action: Phosphose lipase C to make IP3 (releases Ca2+) and DAG (activates protein kinase C)
- changes in target tissue: Constricts blood vessels and visceral organ sphincters, dilates pupils
Explain the mechanism of action in each case, describe the changes in target tissue function
- alpha 2 adrenergic
- mechanism of action: Negative feedback mechanism: binding NE to these receptors inhibits NE release by decreasing cAMP levels. In presynaptic, so no organ
Changes in target tissue: Inhibits NE release from adrenergic terminals, Inhibits insulin secretion, Promotes blood clotting
Explain the mechanism of action in each case, describe the changes in target tissue function
- beta 1 adrenergic
- mechanism of action: Increase in cAMP
Only in the heart, muscle, kidneys - changes in target tissue: Increases heart rate and force of contraction; Stimulates kidneys to release renin
Explain the mechanism of action in each case, describe the changes in target tissue function
- beta 2 adrenergic
- mechanism of action: increase in cAMP
- changes in target tissue: Effects mostly inhibitory, dilates blood vessels and bronchioles, relaxes smooth muscle walls of GIT and urinary organs, relaxes uterus
Explain the mechanism of action in each case, describe the changes in target tissue function
- beta 3 adrenergic
- mechanism of action: increases cAMP
- changes in target tissue: Stimulates lipolysis of fat cells to increase blood glucose for energy
Explain the mechanism of action in each case, describe the changes in target tissue function
- Muscarinic
- mechanism of action: Use G proteins as their signalling mechanism
- changes in target tissue: All parasympathetic target organs (Excitation in most cases, inhibition of cardiac muscle); Limited sympathetic targets (eccrine sweat glands: activation)
What effect does muscarinic receptors have on the PNS?
- decrease heart rate
- constricts the bronchioles
- constricts pupils, stimulates lacrimal glands, stimulates ciliary muscles so lens bulges for close vision
- increased peristalsis and amount of secretion by digestive organs, relaxes sphincters for food to move through, excites gall bladder to expel bile
- contracts smooth muscle of bladder wall, relaxes urethral sphincter, promotes voiding
- causes erection (vasodilation)
- stimulates secretion of watery saliva
What is the effect of beta 1 receptors in the sympathetic NS?
- increases rate and force of heart beat
What is the effect of beta 2 receptors in the sympathetic NS?
- dilates bronchioles
- decreases activity of glands and muscles of digestive system. constricts sphincters, inhibits (relaxes gallbladder)
- Weakly dilates vessels of skeletal muscles during exercise
What is the effect of alpha 1 receptors in the sympathetic NS?
- constricts vessels of abdominal viscera ad skin to divert blood to muscles, brain and heart when necessary. Weakens BP.
- dilates pupils, inhibits secretory activity and constricts blood vessels supply lacrimal gland, weakly inhibits ciliary muscle which flattens the lens for far vision
- relaxes smooth muscle of bladder wall, constricts urethral sphincter, inhibits voiding
- causes ejaculation
- stimulates secretion of thick, viscous saliva
What are the 3 levels of motor control?
- Segmental level (lowest)
- Projection level (middle)
- Precommand level (highest)
What does the segmental level of motor control contain?
- spinal cord
- central pattern generators
What does the projection level of motor control contain?
- primary motor cortex: pyramidal pathways
- brain stem nuclei: vestibular, red, reticular formation ect.
What is the function of the projection level of motor control?
- conveys instructions to the spinal cord motor neurons and sends a copy of that information to higher levels
What does the precommand level of motor control contain?
- cerebellum
- basal nuclei
What is the function of the precommand level of motor control?
Programs and instructions (modified by feedback)
Where are lower motor neurons located?
- Ventral horn OR
-Anterior nerve roots (spinal LMNs) OR - Brainstem nuclei (cranial nerve LMNs)
What is the function of intrafusal fibres?
Serve as proprioceptors- detect the amount and rate if change in the length of a muscle. Rate of stretch determines the rare of firing of afferent fibres.
What is the function of extrafusal fibres?
Standard effector fibres of the muscle that cause contraction and tension.
Intrafusal fibres
- structure: ..?.. enclosed fibres in a ..?.. within the ..?.. of a ..?… The ..?.. regions lack ..?.. and are ..?..
Intrafusal fibres
- sensory neurons: ..?.. types of axon endings. ..?.. endings: large axons that wrap around the ..?.. , stimulated by ..?.. and ..?.. of ..?… You also have ..?.. endings that are formed by ..?.. axons that supply the ..?.. ends, stimulated by only a degree of ..?..
2; allunospiral; spindle centre; rate; degree; stretch; flower spray; smaller; spindle; stretch
Intrafusal fibres
Motor neurons: there are ..?.. types. ..?.. fibres innervate the ..?.. of the ..?.. that are ..?.. to maintain spindle ..?.. by keeping the spindle ..?… You also have ..?.. neurons that innervate ..?.. of muscle spindles with ..?.. to ..?.. fibres
2: Gamma efferent (γ); ends; spindle; contractile; sensitivity; tense; Beta motor (β); intrafusal fibres; collaterals; extrafusal
Main sensory functions of muscle spindles and the stimuli for activating them
- Muscle spindle: ..?.. receptors within the ..?.. of a muscle that primarily detect changes in the ..?.. of this muscle. They convey muscle ..?.. and ..?.. information to the ..?.. via ..?… This feeds back to ..?.. neurons that stimulate ..?…
- ..?.. fibres (chubby, ..?.. nuclei) detect ..?.. of ..?..
- ..?.. fibres (..?.. with nuclei ..?.. distributed) detect ..?..
- sensory; belly; length; length; stretch;CNS; sensory neurones; motor. Contraction
- nuclear bag; central; onset; stretch
-nuclear chain; elongated; evenly; sustained stretch
List the main sensory functions Golgi tendon organs, and the stimuli for activating it
- Golgi tendon organs: a ..?.. sensory receptor organ located at the ..?. and ..?.. of ..?.. muscle fibres into the ..?.. of skeletal muscle that senses changes in ..?… Consists of strands of ..?.. that are
connected at one end to the ..?.. and at the other merge into the ..?… - When the muscle generates ..?.., the sensory ….. are ..?.., opening ..?.. cation channels. The axon is ..?.. and fires ..?.. to the ..?.. that ..?.. with ..?.. causing a ..?.. that ..?.. impulses to ..?.. motor neurons. This assists in regulating muscle ..?…
- Proprioceptive; origins; insertion; skeletal; tendons; muscle tension; collagen; muscle fibres; tendon
- force; terminals; compressed; stretch-sensitive; depolarised;nerve impulses; spinal cord; synapse; inhibitory inter neurons; reflex; decreases; alpha; contraction force
The purpose of a-y coactivation
- if only an ..?.. motor neuron were activated, only the ..?.. muscle fibres ..?… The muscle spindle becomes ..?.. and no ..?.. are fired. It’s unable to signal further changes in ..?…
- but normally ..?.. occurs. Both ..?.. and ..?.. muscle fibres contract. ..?.. is maintained in the muscle spindle and it can still ..?.. changes in ..?..
- Alpha; extrafusal; contract; slack; APs; length
- a-y coactivation; extrafusal; intrafusal; tension; signal; length.
Events by which muscle stretch is damped
- When ..?.. activates muscle spindles, the associated ..?.. neurons transmit ..?.. impulse at a ..?.. frequency to the ..?..
- The ..?.. neurons ..?.. directly with ..?.. motor neurons, which excite ..?.. fibres of the ..?.. muscle. Sensory fibres also synapse with ..?.. that ..?.. motor neurons controlling ..?.. muscles
3a. ..?.. impulses of ..?.. motor neurons cause the ..?.. muscle to ..?.. which ..?.. or ..?.. the stretch
3b. ..?.. impulses of ..?.. motor neurons to ..?.. muscles are ..?.. (..?.. inhibition)
- Stretch; sensory; afferent; higher; spinal cord
- Sensory; synapse; alpha; extrafusal stretched; interneurons; inhibit; antagonistic
3a. Efferent; alpha; stretched; contract; resists; reverses
3b. Efferent; alpha; antagonist; reduced; reciprocal
The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex- example of a stretch reflex
- Tapping the ..?.. stretches the ..?.. and excites its muscle spindles
- ..?.. impulses travel to the ..?.. where synapses occur with ..?.. neurons and ..?..
3a. The ..?.. neurons send ..?.. impulses to the ..?.. causing it to ..?.., ..?.. the knee
3b. The ..?.. make ..?.. synapses with ..?.. neurons that prevent the ..?.. muscles (..?..) from resisting the ..?.. of the ..?. .
- Patellar ligament; quadriceps
- Afferent; spinal cord; motor; interneurons
3a. Motor; activating; quadriceps; contract; extending
3b. Interneurons; inhibitory; ventral horn; antagonist; hamstrings; contraction; quadriceps
Monosynaptic reflex: When a ..?.. consists of only ..?.. neurons, one ..?.. neuron, and one ..?.. neuron.
- This reflex has the shortest ..?.. of all spinal reflexes
reflex arc; two; sensory; motor; latency
Inducing the reflex, the sensory receptors involved
- Induction: in response to ..?.. within the muscle
- Sensory receptors involved: ..?.. (primary) and ..? (secondary) receptors around the muscle spindle
- stretching
- anullospiral; flower spray
The afferent and efferent pathways of inducing a reflex
- Afferent pathways: ..?.. afferent neurons, to ..?.., synapses on ..?.. neuron within the ..?.. of the spinal cord
- Efferent pathways: efferent neuron in ..?.., to ..?..
- up; dorsal rami; motor; grey matter
- spinal cord; ventral rami
The effector organ of a monosynaptic reflex
- Effector organ: ..?.. fibres (via ..?.. motor neurons) and ..?.. fibres (via ..?.. motor neurons)
intrafusal; gamma; extrafusal; alpha
Co-activation of alpha and gamma motor neurons ensures muscle doesn’t go ..?..:
- ..?.. motor fires ..?.., causes contraction of ..?.. fibres
- This causes intrafusal fibres to bunch up and no longer tense
- ..?.. fibres must remain ..?.. to sense ..?.. in ..?.. to fire ..?.. neuron
- Therefore ..?. motor neurons cause ..?.. of ..?.. fibres to maintain ..?.. and ability to detect ..?..
Slack
- Alpha; fast; extrafusal
- Intrafusal; tense; change; length; afferent
- gamma; contraction; intrafusal; tension; stretch
What is the spinal level location of the biceps reflex?
C5-C6
What is the spinal level location of the triceps reflex?
C6-C8
What is the spinal level location of the patellar reflex?
L2-L4
What is the spinal level location of the ankle reflex?
S1-S2
The plantar response
- The plantar reflex is a reflex elicited when the ..?.. aspect of the ..?.. of the ..?.. is stimulated with a ..?.. instrument. It tests the ..?.. of the spinal cord from ..?.. to ..?.. and indirectly determines if the ..?.. tracts are functioning properly. The purpose of the reflex is to cause the ..?.. of the area of the ..?.. from the ..?…
- In normal adults the plantar reflex causes ..?.. of the ..?.. with some ..?… An ..?.. response (..?..) of the ..?.. with ..?.. toes fanning ..?.. is known as the ..?.. sign. ..?.. exhibit Babinski’s sign up to ..?.. years of age because the neurons are incompletely ..?…
- ..?.. are the sensory receptors activated in the plantar response. They are a type of ..?.. (nerve endings) in the skin responsible for sensitivity to ..?. and ..?… They respond only to ..?.. disturbances.
- lateral; sole; foot; blunt; integrity; L4; S2; cortico-spinal; withdrawal; skin; stimulus
- downward flexion; big toe; eversion; upward; dorsiflexion; big toe; smaller; laterally; Babinski; infants; one; myelinated
- Pacinian corpuscles; mechanoreceptors; vibration; pressure; sudden
Adjusting muscle spindle sensitivity
- ..?.. modification of ..?.. reflex response is achieved by adjusting the ..?.. of ..?.. motor neurons via activation of cortical ..?.. motor neurons. When Gamma motor neurons are vigorously stimulated by the ..?.., the spindle is ..?.. and highly ..?… Muscle contraction ..?.. is ..?.. or ..?… This is important when ..?.. or ..?.. of ..?.. is ..?.., eg ..?…
- When Gamma motor neurons are ..?.., the spindle is ..?.. and ..?.., and ..?.. muscles relax. This is important for a large degree of ..?.. or maximum ../…
- ..?.. fibres also synapse with ..?.. in the ..?.. that make ..?.. synapses with ..?.. neurons to prevent ..?.. muscles from ..?.. the ..?.. of the main ..?.. muscle. The stretch reflex is important for ..?.. muscle ..?.. at ..?.. and adjusting it ..?.., especially within larger ..?.. muscles responsible for maintaining upright ..?.. and in ..?.. muscles of the ..?…
- Neuroplasticity: ability of the ..?.. in to ..?.. specific ..?.., add new ..?.. to ..?.. pathways, and ..?.. the amount of ..?.. in the brain network to ..?.. to ..?.. in the ..?.., such as during ..?.., ..?.. dependent such as ..?.., or ..? induced).
- voluntary; stretch; firing rate; gamma; upper; UMNs; stretched; sensitive; force; maintained; increased; speed; difficulty; movement; high; gymnastics
- inhibited; relaxed; non-responsive; extrafusal; relax; motion; force
- afferent; interneurons; spinal cord; inhibitory; motor; antagonistic; resisting; contraction; reflex; maintaining; tone; rest; reflexively; extensor; posture; postural; trunk
- brain; change; structures; neurons; neural; increase; synapses; adapt; changes; environment; development; activity; skills; injury
Descending pathways and tracts deliver ..?.. impulses from the ..?.. to the ..?.. and ..?.. over to ..?.. side of the body in the ..?..
Efferent; brain; spinal cord; cross; other; medulla
Direct (..?..) pathways
o Originate within ..?.. in the ..?..
o Send impulses through the ..?.. via pyramidal/..?.. tracts
o ..?.. from ..?.. neurons descend without ..?..
o Regulates ..?.. and ..?.. movements (e.g. ..?..)
Pyramidal
- pyramidal neurons; pre central gyri
- brain stem; cortico-spinal
- axons; pyramidal; synapsids
- fast; fine; writing
Indirect pathways are multi-synaptic- true/false
True
What are the types of indirect pathways?
- reticulospinal tracts
- vestibulospinal tracts
- rubrospinal tracts
- tectospinal tracts
Where do reticulospinal tracts originate?
medial nuclear group of pons and medulla
What are the reticulospinal tracts responsible for?
regulate axial muscles that maintain balance and posture
Where do vestibulospinal tracts originate?
vestibular nuclei in medulla of brain stem
What is the function of the vestibulospinal tracts?
regulate axial muscles that maintain balance and posture
Where do rubrospinal tracts originate?
Red nucleus of the midbrain
What is the function of the rubrospinal tracts?
control flexor muscles of coarse limb movements
Where do tectospinal tracts originate?
Superior colliculus of the midbrain
What is the function of the tectospinal tracts?
mediate head, neck and eye movements that follow objects in the visual field
What are the types of direct/pyramidal pathways?
- lateral corticospinal
- ventral corticospinal
Where do lateral corticospinal tracts originate?
Pyramidal neurons of motor cortex of cerebrum
What is the function of lateral corticospinal tracts?
Activate skeletal muscles on the opposite side of the body- a voluntary motor tract
Where do the ventral corticospinal tracts originate?
Pyramidal neurons of the motor cortex
The function of the ventral corticospinal tracts is the same as the lateral tracts- true/false
True
Reticular nuclei: ..?.. motor control, ..?.. control, ..?. modulation, ..?.. and consciousness, habituation
• ..?.. pathway
Somatic; cardiovascular; pain; consciousness
- reticulospinal
Vestibular nuclei: mediate responses that maintain ..?..
• ..?.. pathway
equilibrium
- Vestibulospinal
Red nucleus: embedded in the ..?.. formation (..?.. nuclei in some ..?.. motor pathways that effect limb ..?..)
• ..?.. pathway
Reticular; relay; descending; flexion
- rubrospinal
Which cranial nerve nuclei receive an UMN supply from both cerebral hemispheres?
- V3: mandibular division
- VII (frontal division only)
- IX
- X (skeletal/ striated muscles of the pharynx, larynx and upper oesophagus)
- XII (intrinsic tongue muscles)
Which cranial nerve nuclei receive an UMN supply from one cerebral hemispheres?
- II
- IV
- VI
- VII (all divisions except frontal)
- XII (extrinsic tongue muscles)
What cranial nerve nuclei is the UMN supply unclear about whether it is contralateral, bilateral or ipsi-lateral?
- XI
Cerebellum does not have direct contact with the ..?.., but relays through the ..?..
spinal cord; thalamus
What are main sensory inputs to the cerebellum?
- dorsal columns of the spinal cord
- vestibular nucleus
- pretectal nuclei
- inferior olive
The main sensory inputs to the cerebellum
- The dorsal columns of the ..?.. relay sensory information to the ..?.. to ..?.. muscle
- The vestibular nucleus relays information from the ..?.. in the ..?.., and from other ..?.. to the ..?.. that monitor the ..?.. and ..?.. of the body
- The pretectal nuclei relay ..?.. information to the ..?..
- The inferior olive relays sensory information on the state of ..?.. of ..?.. and ..?.. to the ..?..
- spinal cord; cerebellum; coordinate
- labyrinth; ear; mechanoreceptors; cerebellum; position; motion
- visual; cerebellum
- stretch; muscles; joints; cerebellum
Cerebellar cortex targets ..?…
- It calculates the best way to ..?.. the ..?.., ..?.., and ..?.. of muscle ..?.. to prevent ..?.., maintain ..?.. and ensure smooth ..?.. movements
Muscles
- coordinate; force; direction; extent; contraction; overshooting; posture; coordinated
Deep cerebellar nuclear cells target ..?.. and the ..?..
- Providing ..?.. of ..?.. motor systems. Nuclei cells are embedded in the ..?.. in the centre of the ..?… Most ..?.. fibres of the ..?.. originate from these ..?…
Cerebral cortex; brain stem
- modulation; descending; white matter; cerebellar; output; cerebellum; nuclei
What is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter released from the cerebellar cortex to deep cerebellar nuclear cells
These nuclei receive inhibitory (GABAergic) inputs from Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex
Describe how outputs from the cerebellum affect the brainstem motor nuclei that control postural muscle function, the thalamus and consequently the motor cortex
- The ..?.. connecting the ..?.. and ..?.. carry instructions from neurons of the deep ..?.. to the ..?.. via ..?… The cerebellum has no direct connections to the ..?…
- The ..?.. nuclei relay ..?.. information to the ..?..;
- The inferior ..?.. relays sensory information on the state of ..?.. of muscles and ..?.. to the ..?..
- superior peduncles; cerebellum; midbrain; cerebellar nuclei; cerebral motor cortex; thalamic relays; cerebral cortex
- pretectal; visual; cerebellum
- olive; stretch; joints; cerebellum
State the neuronal targets of outputs from the basal ganglia, and their role in motor control
- Basal ganglia/basal nuclei: a group of structures - linked to the ..?.. in the ..?.. of the brain and involved in ..?.. of movement. Include the ..?.. nucleus, ../.., nucleus ..?.., ..?.. tubercle, globus ..?.., ..?.. pallidum, substantia ..?.., and ..?.. nucleus
- Role in motor control: is not responsible for ..?.. movement. Primarily used for ..?.., i.e., basal nuclei help determine the ..?.. of which of several possible ..?.. to ..?.. at any given time; to ..?.. and ..?.. activities of the ..?.. and ..?.. cortical areas so that ..?.. movements can be performed ..?..
- Targets: Motor cortex - ..?.. nuclei - ..?..
- thalamus; base; coordination; caudate; putamen; accumbens; olfactory; pallidus; ventral; nigra subthalamic
- initiating; action selection; decision; behaviours; execute; control; regulate; motor; pre motor; voluntary; smoothly
- basal; thalamus
What is the function of the premotor cortex?
helps plan movement, selects and sequences basic movements into complicated tasks. Receives highly processed information from other cortical areas for the control of
What is the function of the supplementary motor cortex?
same as premotor cortex but planning complex movements with both hands
What is the function of central pattern generators (CPGs)?
are biological neural networks that produce rhythmic patterned outputs without sensory feedback, such as breathing patterns. Oscillating inhibiting and excitatory neurons
Functions of the secondary motor cortices
• The ..?.. cortex, responsible for transforming ..?.. information into ..?.. commands
• The ..?.. cortex, responsible for motor ..?.. of movement and control of ..?.. and ..?.. muscles of the body
• The ..?.. motor area (or SMA) responsible for ..?.. and ..?.. of ..?.. movements such as those requiring ..?..
- posterior parietal; visual; motor commands
- premotor; guidance; proximal; trunk
- supplementary; planning; coordination; complex; two hands
Neurotransmitters in the basal ganglia and their effect:
• In the basal ganglia most neurons (e.g. from the ..?.., pallidum, and ..?.. nigra pars ..?..) use ..?.. as neurotransmitter and have ..?.. effects on their targets (so the basal ganglia basically function through ..?.. and ..?..).
• The inputs from the ..?.. and ..?.. to the basal ganglia use ..?…
- striatum; substantia; reticulata; GABA; inhibitory; inhibition; disinhibition
- cortex; thalamus; glutamate
Impact of dopamine and muscarinic cholinergic receptor activation on thalamic neuronal firing
• Dopamine has a ..?.. effect – usually ..?.. within the ..?.., but mildly ..?.. the ..?…
• ..?.. has the ..?.. effect
- modulating; stimulatory; basal ganglia; inhibiting; thalamus
- ACh; opposite
