Blood

Question 1

Organic plasma components consisting of plasma proteins:

Answer 1

Water, Nutrients, Gasses, Hormones, Wastes, Products of cell activity, Proteins

Question 2

Inorganic plasma components consisting of electrolytes:

Answer 2

Electrolytes (Na+, Cl, K, Ca, Mg, PO4, SO4, bicarbonate): helps maintain plasma osmotic pressure and normal blood pH

Question 3

% plasma of whole blood?

Answer 3

55%

Question 4

What does the buffet coat consist of?

Answer 4

Leukocytes and platelets

Question 5

% buffy coat of whole blood?

Answer 5

< 1%

Question 6

% erythrocytes (hematocrit) of whole blood?

Answer 6

45%

Question 7

What are the most abundant cations in blood?

Answer 7

Na, K, Ca, Mg

Question 8

What are the most abundant anions in blood?

Answer 8

Chloride, phosphate, suflate and bicarbonate

Question 9

What plasma proteins are found in blood?

Answer 9

• albumin: 60% (produced by liver and main contributor to osmotic pressure)
• globulins: 36% (alpha, beta and gamma)
• fibrinogen: 4%

Question 10

Electrophoresis is a technique used to ..?.. different elements (..?..) of a blood sample into ..?.. components. All proteins have an ..?.. and the test is designed to make use of this characteristic.
The sample is placed in or on a special ..?.. (e.g. a ..?..), and an ..?.. is applied to the gel. The ..?.. particles move through the gel according to the ..?.. of their ..?.. charges, forming ..?.. or ..?… An instrument called a ..?.. measures these bands, which can be identified. ..?.. (SPEP) is a ..?.. test that measures the major blood ..?.. by separating them into ..?.. distinct fractions: ..?.., ..?.., ..?.., ..?.., and ..?.. proteins. Protein electrophoresis can also be performed on ..?…

Answer 10

separate; fractions; individual; electrical charge; medium; gel; electric current; protein; strength; electrical; bands; zones; densitometer; Serum protein electrophoresis; screening; proteins; five; albumin; alpha1; alpha2; beta; gamma; urine

Question 11

Diameter of RBCs

Answer 11

7.5 μm

Question 12

Shape of RBCs

Answer 12

Shaped like biconcave discs—flattened discs with depressed centres— they appear lighter in colour at their thin centres than at their edges.

Question 13

Mature erythrocytes are bound by a ..?.., but lack a ..?.. (are anucleate) and have essentially no ..?… In fact, they are little more than “bags” of ..?.., the RBC protein that functions in ..?..

Answer 13

plasma membrane; nucleus; organelles; haemoglobin (Hb); gas transport.

Question 14

What other proteins are present in RBCs and what is their function?

Answer 14

antioxidant enzymes that rid the body of harmful oxygen radicals, but most function as structural proteins, allowing the RBC to deform yet spring back into shape.

Question 15

What is spectrin and the function of it?

Answer 15

network of proteins, especially one called spectrin, attached to the cytoplasmic face of RBC plasma membranes maintains the biconcave shape of an erythrocyte.

Question 16

Describe the spectrin net and it’s function?

Answer 16

The spectrin net is deformable, allowing erythrocytes to change shape as necessary—to twist, turn, and become cup shaped as they are carried passively through capillaries with diameters smaller than themselves—and then to resume their biconcave shape

Question 17

Give an example of the complementarity of structure and function of RBCs

Answer 17

It picks up oxygen in the capillaries of the lungs and releases it to tissue cells across other capillaries throughout the body. It also transports some 20% of the carbon dioxide released by tissue cells back to the lungs.

Question 18

Three structural characteristics contribute to erythrocyte gas transport functions:

• Its small ..?.. and ..?.. shape provide a huge ..?.. relative to ..?.. (about ..?.. more surface area than comparable ..?.. cells). The biconcave disc shape is ideally suited for ..?.. because no point within the ..?.. is far from the ..?…
• Discounting ..?.. content, an erythrocyte is over 97% ..?.., the molecule that binds to and transports ..?.. gases.
• Because erythrocytes lack ..?.. and generate ..?.. by ..?.. mechanisms, they do not consume any of the ..?.. they carry, making them very efficient ..?.. indeed.

Answer 18

• size; biconcave; surface area; volume; 30% ; spherical; gas exchange; cytoplasm; surface
• water; haemoglobin; respiratory;
• mitochondria; ATP; anaerobic; oxygen; oxygen transporters

Question 19

What is the major factor contributing to blood viscosity?

Answer 19

Erythrocytes

Question 20

Blood cell count in women

Answer 20

4.2–5.4 million cells per microliter (1 μl 5 1 mm3) of blood

Question 21

Blood cell count in men

Answer 21

4.7–6.1 million cells/μl

Question 22

Normal values for haemoglobin in males

Answer 22

13–18 grams per 100 millilitres of blood (g/100 ml) in adult males

Question 23

Normal values for haemoglobin in females

Answer 23

12–16 g/100 ml in adult females.

Question 24

What is Hb made up of?

Answer 24

Haemoglobin is made up of the red haeme pigment bound to the protein globin.

Question 25

What does globin and heme consist of?

Answer 25

four polypeptide chains— two alpha (a) and two beta (β)—each binding a ring-like haeme group. Each haeme group bears an atom of iron set like a jewel in its centre.

Question 26

How much oxygen can one haemoglobin molecule transport and why?

Answer 26

A haemoglobin molecule can transport four molecules of oxygen because each iron atom can combine reversibly with one molecule of oxygen.

Question 27

How many Hb molecules can a single RBC contain?

Answer 27

250 million haemoglobin molecules; so each cell can scoop up about 1 billion molecules of oxygen

Question 28

Why is Hb contained in erythrocytes and not free in the plasma?

Answer 28

• From breaking into fragments that would leak out of the bloodstream (through porous capillary walls) and • From making blood more viscous and raising osmotic pressure.

Question 29

Production of erythrocytes is controlled hormonally and depends on an adequate supply of:

Answer 29

iron, amino acids, and certain B vitamins. Hormonal Controls Erythropoietin (EPO), a glycoprotein hormone, stimulates the formation of erythrocytes.

Question 30

What organ produces EPO?

Answer 30

The kidneys, and sometimes the liver

Question 31

Stimulus for formation of RBCs

Answer 31

Hypoxia

Question 32

What is required for Hb synthesis?

Answer 32

adequate Fe supply from diet, transferrin within the blood plasma acts as a carry protein, bone marrow cells take up Fe to produce heme group, and this then combines with globulins to create Hb

Question 33

What products are required for RBC synthesis?

Answer 33

- iron, folate, vitamin B12; IF

Question 34

What is the role of iron in erythrocyte production?

Answer 34

It’s the central molecule in the heme group

Question 35

What is the role of folate in erythrocyte production?

Answer 35

It’s needed for erythroblast proliferation (DNA synthesis) to differentiate into RBCs

Question 36

What is the role of vitaminB12 in erythrocyte production?

Answer 36

Needed to absorb Fe in the small intestine by active transport and for DNA synthesis

Question 37

What is the role of IF in erythrocyte production?

Answer 37

Needed for vitamin B12 absorption

Question 38

What are some of the causes of hypoxia?

Answer 38

- decreased RBC count - decreased amount of Hb - decreased availability of O2

Question 39

What does EPO do?

Answer 39

Stimulates the red bone marrow to enhance erythropoiesis

Question 40

List the order of erythropoiesis starting from the hematopoetic stem cell (hemocytoblast)

Answer 40

1. Hemocytoblast 2. Proerythroblast 3. Basophilic erythroblast 4. Polychromatic erythroblast 5. Orthochromatic erythroblast 6. Reticulocyte 7. erythroblast

Question 41

Hb degradation No protein synthesis means RBCs cannot repair ..?.., macrophages ..?.. RBCs and take them to the ..?... Many components are recycled o Fe for more ..?.. groups o ..?.. incorporated into new proteins o ..?.. ring gets broken down in the ..?.. and ..?.. into ..?.. Iron transport: Liver stores excess iron as ..?.. Bilirubin production o Bilirubin gets converted into ..?.. o Bile excreted in the ..?.., or bilirubin in the ..?.. (yellow colour)

Answer 41

cell membranes; endocytose; spleen; heme; Amino acids; Porphyrin; liver; spleen; bilirubin; Ferritin; bile; faeces; urine

Question 42

When is there low levels of Hb in the blood?

Answer 42

- In Fe deficiency - hemolysis - haemorrhage

Question 43

Haematocrit: the volume of ..?.. in a sample of ..?.. as a proportion of the total ..?.. of the sample. It gives a rough indication of the number and volume of the ..?.. in the blood.

Answer 43

Erythrocytes; blood; volume; erythrocytes

Question 44

Haematocrit level in males and females

Answer 44

Normal males: 40 – 54% Normal females: 37 – 47%

Question 45

When is mean cell volume increased?

Answer 45

B12 deficiency

Question 46

When is mean cell volume decreased?

Answer 46

Fe deficiency; haemorrhage

Question 47

When is mean cell Hb decreased?

Answer 47

- Fe deficiency anemia - thalassemia

Question 48

When is mean cell Hb increased?

Answer 48

Vit B12 deficiency anemia and folate deficiency

Question 49

Role of neutrophils

Answer 49

induce inflammatory response, also phagocytose but can also release enzymes. Bacterial infections

Question 50

Role of eosinophils

Answer 50

Has cytotoxic granules; phagocytose. Parasitic infections. Complex role in allergy and asthma

Question 51

Role of basophils

Answer 51

release histamine and heparin and other mediators of inflammation.

Question 52

Role of mast cells

Answer 52

release histamine.

Question 53

Role of macrophages

Answer 53

– phagocytose; antigen-presenting cells.

Question 54

Monocytes – are ..?... As soon as it enters the tissue, becomes a ..?.., ..?.. cells. Assist in ..?.. activation

Answer 54

pre-macrophages; macrophage; antigen-presenting; t-cell

Question 55

Lymphocyte – B (that become ..?.. cells) and T cells in ..?.. immune, ..?.. and antigen-presenting cells

Answer 55

plasma; adaptive; cytotoxic

Question 56

Basophils and masts are the same, except for ..?... Mast cells are in the ..?.. and ..?.. fluid but basophils are in the ..?..

Answer 56

location; tissue; interstitial; blood

Question 57

What are the 3 types of lymphocytes and their roles?

Answer 57

- NK cells: non specific immunity - T-cells: adaptive IS - B cellls: adaptive IS- secrete antibodies

Question 58

Platelets About one-fourth the diameter of a ..?.., they are ..?.. fragments of extraordinarily large cells (up to 60 μm in diameter) called ..?... The granules contain an impressive array of chemicals that act in the ..?.. process, including ..?.., ..?.., a variety of enzymes, ..?.., and ….. (PDGF). By sticking to the damaged site, platelets form a temporary ..?.. that helps ..?.. the break. Because they are ..?.., platelets age quickly and ..?.. in about ..?.. days if they are not involved in ..?... They circulate ..?.., kept mobile but ..?.. by molecules (..?.., ..?..) secreted by ..?.. cells lining the blood vessels.

Answer 58

Lymphocyte; cytoplasmic; megakaryocytes; clotting; serotonin; Ca21; ADP; platelet derived growth factor ; plug; seal; anucleate; degenerate; 10; clotting; freely; inactive; nitric oxide; prostacyclin; endothelial

Question 59

What hormone regulates the formation of platelets?

Answer 59

thrombopoietin

Question 60

What are the steps involved in hemostasis?

Answer 60

1. Vascular spasm 2. Platelet plug formation 3. Coagulation (blood clotting)

Question 61

Phase 1 of hemostasis Vessel constriction - When platelets are activated, they release ..?.. to constrict ..?.. – causes ..?.. - Intact tissue releases ..?.. and ..?.. – ..?.. that signal that tissue is ..?.. and non-damaged - Step 1: Vascular Spasm In the first step, the damaged blood vessels respond to injury by constricting (vasoconstriction). Factors that trigger this vascular spasm include direct ..?.. to ..?.. smooth muscle, chemicals released by ..?.. cells and platelets, and ..?.. initiated by local ..?.. receptors. The spasm mechanism becomes more efficient as the amount of tissue damage ..?.., and is most effective in the ..?.. blood vessels. The spasm response is valuable because a strongly constricted artery can significantly reduce blood loss for ..?.. minutes, allowing time for the next two steps to occur.

Answer 61

Serotonin; smooth muscle; vasoconstriction; NO; prostaglandins; vasodilators; healthy; injury; vascular; endothelial; reflexes; pain; increases; smaller; 20-30

Question 62

Phase 2 of hemostasis - Prothrombin= ..?.. - ..?.. =fibrin monomers - Plasminogen= ..?.. (for ..?.. of ..?.. platelet plug) - Step 2: Platelet Plug Formation In the second step, platelets play a key role in haemostasis by ..?.. (sticking together), forming a plug that temporarily ..?.. the break in the vessel wall. They also help orchestrate subsequent events that form a blood clot. As a rule, platelets do not stick to ..?.. or to smooth ..?.. of blood vessels. Intact endothelial cells release ..?.. and a ..?.. called ..?.. (or PGI2). Both chemicals prevent platelet ..?.. in ..?.. tissue and ..?.. aggregation to the site of ..?... However, when endothelium is damaged and underlying ..?.. fibres are exposed, platelets ..?.. tenaciously to the ..?.. fibres. A large plasma protein called ..?.. stabilizes bound platelets by forming a ..?.. between ..?.. and ..?... Platelets ..?.., form ..?.. processes, become ..?.., and release chemical messengers including the following: - ..?.. (ADP)—a potent ..?.. agent that causes more platelets to ..?.. to the area and release their contents

Answer 62

Thrombin; fibrinogen; plasmin; degradation; fibrin; aggregating; seals; each other; endothelial linings; nitric oxide; prostaglandin; prostacyclin; aggregation; undamaged; restrict; injury; collagen; adhere; collagen; vin Willebrand factor; bound; bridge; collagen; platelets; swell; spiked; sticklers; Adenosine diphosphate; Adenosine diphosphate; stick;

Question 63

What is the role of prostaglandins in the hemostasis?

Answer 63

- Maintain vasoconstriction that has been initiated by initial injury to the vessel - Decrease Ca2+ concentrations, resulting in decreased coagulation

Question 64

Intrinsic pathway - stimulated by: ..?.. - end point: ..?..

Answer 64

- collagen exposure - clotting

Question 65

Extrinsic pathway: - stimulated: ..?.. - endpoint: ..?..

Answer 65

-tissue factor - clotting

Question 66

Process of fibrinolysis - Clot is not ..?.. solution to blood vessel injury - Fibrinolysis removes ..?.. clots when ..?.. has occurred - Prevents vessels becoming completely ..?.. by clots - The critical natural “clot buster” is a ..?.. enzyme called …?.., which is produced when the plasma protein ..?.. is ..?... - Large amounts of ..?.. are incorporated into a ..?.. clot, where it remains ..?.. until appropriate ..?.. reach it. - The presence of a clot in and around the blood vessel causes the ..?.. cells to secrete ..?.. (tPA). Activated ..?.. and ..?.. released during clotting also activate ..?... - As a result, most plasmin activity is ..?.. to the clot, and ..?.. enzymes quickly ..?.. any ..?.. that strays into the plasma. Fibrinolysis begins within ..?.. days and continues slowly over several days until the clot finally ..?.. - Vitamin ..?.. is a ..?.. in the synthesis of the ..?.. factors

Answer 66

- permanent - unneeded; healing - blocked - fibrin digesting; plasmin; plasminogen; activated - plasminogen; forming; inactive; signals - endothelial; tissue plasminogen activator; factor XII; thrombin; plasminogen - confined; circulating; destroy; plasmin; 2; dissovles - K; cofactor; clotting

Question 67

Different levels for inhibiting coagulation: - Anti-..?..: Stopping platelets from being ..?.. and forming ..?.. - Anti-..?.. (..?.., and ..?.. 3) = block ..?.. of ..?.. via the coagulation ..?.. by inhibiting formation of ..?.. - Fibrinolytic: ..?.. that ..?.. the clot (eg, streptokinase) - In vivo: ..?.. and ..?.. pathways - In vitro (blood sample): ..?.., EDTA, ..?.. citrate

Answer 67

- platelets; activated; platelet plug - coagulation; heparin; anti thrombin; activation ; clotting factors; coagulation; thrombin - drugs; dissolve - intrinsic; extrinsic - heparin; sodium

Question 68

What does bleeding time assess?

Answer 68

Platelet function

Question 69

What does clotting time assess?

Answer 69

- A rough test to assess the intrinsic pathway of coagulation - Is the time required for a sample of blood to coagulate in vitro under standard conditions.

Question 70

What does prothrombin and partial thromboplastin time assess?

Answer 70

quality of the extrinsic and common pathways of coagulation

Question 71

What is the prothrombin index?

Answer 71

The ratio between the PT of a blood sample taken from a person known to be normal, and the PT of a sample taken from the patient being investigated, using exactly the same reagents and process.

Question 72

Name the antigens and antibodies in blood group AB

Answer 72

Antigens- A, B Antibodies- none

Question 73

Name the antigens and antibodies in blood group B