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Anatomy & Phisiology I. > The Nervous System II. > Flashcards

The Nervous System II. Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two major transmitters used by the autonomic nervous system?

A

Acetylcholine and norepinephrine.

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2
Q

What are the three types of ganglia in the autonomic nervous system?

A

Paravertebral, collateral, terminal.

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3
Q

Compare/Contrast the roles of the two divisions of the ANS:

A

The sympathetic division is in charge of fight or flight responses, while the parasympathetic is in charge of restoration, relaxation, and resting.

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4
Q

What is the “master regulator” of ANS functions?

A

Hypothalamus.

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5
Q

What brain structures are involved in memory?

A

Cerebral cortex, cerebellum, amygdala, hippocampus, basal nuclei, and thalamus.

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6
Q

What brain structure forms long term memory?

A

Hippocampus.

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7
Q

Compare retrograde and anterograde amnesia:

A

Anterograde amnesia is the loss of ability to create new memories, while retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory prior to the accident.

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8
Q

Differentiate between short term memory and long term memory in terms of amount of information and length of retention:

A
  • Short Term: 7-8 bits of information, which can last anywhere from minutes to hours.
  • Long Term: limitless amount of information can be stored.
  • Secondary: hours to years, but fade

-Tertiary: “permanently ingrained”

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9
Q

What are the 4 basic types of brain waves?

A

Alpha, beta, theta, delta.

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10
Q

What are the stages of sleep and in which do most dreams occur?

A

NREM I: Light sleep

NREM II: Transition Sleep

NREM III: Deeper Sleep

NREM IV: Deepest Sleep

REM Sleep (most dreams)

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11
Q

What ANS activity leads to hypertension?

A
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12
Q

What effect would a spinal cord injury near L-1 have on parasympathetic responses?

A

-

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13
Q

What effect would a spinal cord injury near L-1 have on Sympathetic responses?

A

-

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14
Q

nerve fibers that transmit impulses to other nerve cells, muscle fibers, or gland cells by the medium of the transmitter substance acetylcholine.

A

Cholinergic fibers.

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15
Q

nerve fiber’s that transmit nervous impulses to other nerve cells (or smooth muscle or gland cells) by the medium of the adrenalinelike transmitter substance norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

A

Adrenergic fibers.

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16
Q

Differentiate between cholinergic and adrenergic fibers.

A

Cholinergic fibers transmit signals using acetylcholine, while adrenergic fibers transmist using norepinephrine.

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17
Q

The sensation of pain in a part of the body other than it’s actual source.

A

Referred pain.

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18
Q

a type of pain that typically lasts less than 3 to 6 months, or pain that is directly related to soft tissue damage such as a sprained ankle or a paper cut. It is of short duration but it gradually resolves as the injured tissues heal.

A

Acute pain.

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19
Q

defined as pain that lasts longer than six months - can be mild or excruciating, episodic or continuous, merely inconvenient or totally incapacitating.

A

Chronic pain.

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20
Q

Compare/Contrast rods and cones in terms of what they respond to and when they function best.

A

Rods sense light, and function best in dim lighting, whereas cones respond to color and function best in relatively bright light.

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21
Q

What Cranial Nerve is responsible for hearing and equilibrium?

A

Vestibulocochlear. VIII.

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22
Q

What is tinnitus?

A

The perception of sound in the absence of an external source: “ringing in the ears”.

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23
Q

an inflamed swelling on the edge of an eyelid, caused by bacterial infection of the gland at the base of an eyelash.

A

Sty.

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24
Q

inflammation of the conjunctiva of the eye - “pinkeye”.

A

Conjunctivitis.

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25
Q

a medical condition in which the lens of the eye becomes progressively opaque, resulting in blurred vision

A

Cataract.

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26
Q

a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball, causing gradual loss of sight.

A

Glaucoma.

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27
Q

a defect in the eye or in a lens caused by a deviation from spherical curvature, which results in distorted images, as light rays are prevented from meeting at a common focus.

A

Astigmatism.

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28
Q

The bending of light.

A

Refraction.

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29
Q

Automatic adjustment of the eye.

A

Accommodation.

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30
Q

To focus on a nearby image, the lens of the eye becomes ___.

A

Rounded.

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31
Q

To focus on a far away image, the lens of the eye ____.

A

Flattens.

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32
Q

A single unit of light.

A

Photon.

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33
Q

What is the spectrum of visible light?

A

400-700 nanometers.

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34
Q

Of the cones in the, what cones do we have color for?

A

Red, blue, and green.

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35
Q

If all photons bounce off an object, we see ____.

A

White.

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36
Q

If all photons are absorbed by an object, we see ____.

A

Black.

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37
Q

What is the most common pigment found in the discs of the eye?

A

Opsin.

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38
Q

The part of a photoreceptor that is shaped like a rod or a cone is called:

A

Outer segment.

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39
Q

What liquid is found in the cochlea?

A

Perilymph.

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40
Q

Frequency of a sound wave.

A

Pitch.

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41
Q

Stored information gained through experience.

A

Memory.

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42
Q

What types of waves do we see while awake?

A

Beta.

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43
Q

What types of waves do we see while relaxing?

A

Alpha.

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44
Q

What types of brain waves are found in the first and second stages of sleep?

A

Theta.

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45
Q

What type of waves are found in REM sleep?

A

Alpha and beta.

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46
Q

At what stage of sleep does sleep walking and talking occur?

A

Deep sleep.

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47
Q

the thin clear tissue that lies over the white part of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelid.

A

Conjunctiva.

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48
Q

What are the eight phases of sensation, and what occurs in each?

A
  • Stimulus: change in environment.
  • Transduction: changing of stimulus into a neural impulse.
  • Transmission: impulse travels along sensory pathway to the brain.
  • Relay: thalamus integrates, edits and screens.
  • Perception: interpretation of stimulus.
  • Adaption: loss of sensation/perception.
  • Contrast: difference in perceptions based on comparisons.
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49
Q

Change in environment.

A

Stimulus.

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50
Q

Changing of stimulus into neural impulse via CNS.

A

Transduction.

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51
Q

Impulse travels along sensory pathway to the brain.

A

Transmission.

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52
Q

Thalamus integrates, edits and screens a stimulus.

A

Relay.

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53
Q

Interpretation of a stimulus (sensory coding: intensity is coded by rate of impulse firing)

A

Perception.

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54
Q

The detection of mechanical stimuli, such as touch, pressure or vibration. These membranes contain mechanically gated ion channels whose gates open or close in response to stretching, compression, twisting, or other distortion of the membrane.

A

Mechanoreception.

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55
Q

Sensitive to temperature changes.

A

Thermoreceptors.

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56
Q

The detection of changes in the concentrations of dissolved compounds or gases - these receptors respond to water soluble and lipid-soluble substances that are disolved in body fluids.

A

Chemoreception.

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57
Q

Pain receptors - free nerve endings with large receptive fields and broad sensitivity.

A

Nociceptors.

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58
Q

Sensitivity to light.

A

Photoreception.

59
Q

General sensory receptors in the skin, mucous membranes, and special sense organs that provide information about the external environment and about our position within it.

A

Exteroceptors

60
Q

Sensory receptors monitoring the functions and status of internal organs and systems.

A

Interocepters

61
Q

sensors that provide information about joint angle, muscle length, and muscle tension, which is integrated to give information about the position of the limb in space.

A

Proprioceptors.

62
Q

What are the basic functions of free dendritic endings?

A

Responses to touch, pressure, pain and temperature.

63
Q

What are the basic functions of root hair plexuses?

A

Monitor distortions and movements across the body surface.

64
Q

What are the basic functions of meissner’s corpuscles?

A

Provide sensations of fine touch and pressure and low frequency vibrations.

65
Q

What are the basic functions of pacinian corpuscles?

A

Sensitive to deep pressure - because they are fast-adapting, they are most sensitive to pulsing or high-frequency vibrating stimuli.

66
Q

What are the basic functions of ruffinni’s corpuscles?

A

Sensitive to pressure and distortion of the dermis as when the skin is stretched.

67
Q

What are the basic functions of muscle spindles?

A

contribute to fine motor control and provide axial and limb position information to the central nervous system. They are involved in the sensation of position and movement of the body, this is called proprioception

68
Q

What are the basic functions of golgi organs?

A

a proprioceptive sensory receptor organ that senses changes in muscle tension

69
Q

What somatic receptor is responsible for temperature?

A

Free nerve endings.

70
Q

What somatic receptor is in responsible for pain?

A

Free nerve endings.

71
Q

What somatic receptor is responsible for touch?

A

Tactile corpuscles and free nerve endings.

72
Q

What somatic receptor is responsible for pressure?

A

Tactile corpuscles, pacinian corpuscles, rufinni corpuscles, free nerve endings.

73
Q

What somatic receptor is responsible for stretch?

A

Ruffini corpuscles, muscle spindles, and golgi tendon organs.

74
Q

What somatic receptor is responsible for sneezing?

A

Krause’s end bulbs.

75
Q

Detect pressure changes in the walls of blood vessels and in portions of the digestive, respiratory and urinary tracts.

A

Baroreceptors.

76
Q

What are the special senses?

A

Vision, olfaction, gustation, hearing and equilibrium.

77
Q

What specialized structure(s) produces vision, and what stimuli does it detect?

A
  • Sclera, cornea, retina, fovea, rods, cones,

- Photoreceptors.

78
Q

What specialized structure(s) produces olfaction, and what stimuli does it detect?

A
  • Olfactory epithelium, olfactory receptors, and lamina propria.
  • Chemoreceptors.
79
Q

What specialized structure(s) produces gustation and what stimuli does it detect?

A
  • Taste buds, fungiform papillae, and circumvallate papillae.
  • Chemoreceptors.
80
Q

What specialized structure(s) produces hearing, and what stimuli does it detect?

A
  • Tympanic membrane, ossicles, auditory tube, cochlea, semicircular canals, hair cells.
  • Mechanoreceptors.
81
Q

What specialized structure(s) produces equilibrium, and what stimuli does it detect?

A
  • Vestibule and semicircular canals, saccule and utricle, hair cells.
  • Exteroceptors.
82
Q

Depolarization or hyper-polarization caused by a stimulus.

A

Receptor potential.

83
Q

Depolarizing receptor potential in neural receptor.

A

Generator potential.

84
Q

These receptors are always active and slow adapting.

A

Tonic receptors.

85
Q

These receptors are usually inactive unless otherwise stimulated.

A

Phasic receptors.

86
Q

Which pain receptors adapt?

A

This is a trick question - pain receptors do NOT adapt.

87
Q

What is the function of the paravertebral ganglia and the sympathetic trunk?

A

The sympathetic trunk is made up of two long ganglionated nerve strands, one on each side of the vertebral column, extending from the base of the skull to the coccyx - It allows nerve fibres to travel to spinal nerves that are superior and inferior to the one in which they originated.

Paravertebral ganglia generally are located on each side of the vertebrae and are connected to form the sympathetic chain, or trunk.

88
Q

Differentiate between nicotinic and muscarinic receptors:

A

Nicotinic receptors are ionotropic, meaning that when when acetylcholine binds to it, ions flow through it. It acts as a channel for positively charged ions, mainly sodium. This depolarizes the cell. Muscarinic receptors have a different mechanism of action. Instead of becoming an ion channel for sodium, they use a G-protein. When ACh binds to the receptor, this special protein changes shape, which then allows it to phosphorylate various second messengers. You can find muscarinic receptors in the brain, heart, smooth muscle or the parasympathetic nervous system. While nicotinic receptors are found in the sympathetic nervous system, muscarinic receptors are not. Nicotinic receptors are all excitatory, but muscarinic receptors can be both excitatory and inhibitory depending on the subtype.

89
Q

Acetylcholine binding receptors of all autonomic ganglionic neurons and skeletal muscle muscle neuro-muscular junctions; named for activation by nicotine.

A

Nicotinic receptors.

90
Q

Acetylcholine binding receptors of the autonomic nervous system’s target organs; named for activation by the mushroom poison muscarine.

A

Muscarinic receptors.

91
Q

What are the 2 major types of deafness and their principle causes?

A

Conduction and sensorineural.

  • Conductory deafness occurs when something hampers sound conduction to the fluids of the internal ear, which prevents sound conduction from the eardrum to the ossicles.
  • Sensorineural deafness occurs as a result of damage to the neural structures at any point from the cochlear hair cells to and including the auditory cortical cells. Typically results as a loss of hair cells throughout life.
92
Q

Why does a stopped up nose alter your sense of taste?

A

“Flavor” is a combination of taste and smell. There are only five taste: salty sweet, sour, bitter and savory/umami. Compared to taste, there are virtually unlimited number of scents humans can detect. Therefore, when your nose is blocked, basically you can only “taste” the food and unable to “smell”, missing the majority of your food’s flavor. This is the reason why you were unable to taste anything when you had a cold.

93
Q

What is a detached retina?

A

a retina that has become separated from the underlying choroid tissue at the back of the eye, causing loss of vision in the affected area.

94
Q

What is presbycuss? What segment of the population is more likely to have it?

A

Presbycusis is the loss of hearing that gradually occurs in most individuals as they grow older. Hearing loss is a common disorder associated with aging. About 30-35 percent of adults between the ages of 65 and 75 years have a hearing loss.

95
Q

Describe how the eyes adjust for close and distant vision:

A

By the flattening or rounding of the lens.

96
Q

What is stereoscopic vision and how do we achieve depth perception?

A
  • the single perception of a slightly different image from each eye.
  • we achieve depth perception by the brain comparing the relative positions of objects within the images received by both eyes.
97
Q

What structures make up the outer ear?

A

Auricle, helix, lobule, external acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane.

98
Q

What structures make up the middle ear?

A

Oval window, round window, auditory tube, ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes).

99
Q

What structures make up the inner ear?

A

Vestibule, semicircular canals, cochlea.

100
Q

What are the two different refraction problems of the eye?

A

Myopia and hyperopia.

101
Q

What is myopia, and its corrections?

A

“Nearsightedness” - occurs when distant objects are focused not on, but in-front of the retina, and typically results from an eyeball that is too long.

  • Is typically corrected with the use of contact lenses, but radial keratotomy and lasik procedures have offered other treatment options.
102
Q

What is hyperopia and some of it’s corrections?

A

“Far-sightedness” - occurs when the parallel light rays from distant objects are focused BEHIND the retina. Can see distant objects perfectly fine because the ciliary muscles contract to increase the light bending muscles of the lens, but light from nearby travels too far behind the retina for the lens to bring them into focus.

  • Usually treated with corrective lenses.
103
Q

What is the function of the external auditory canal?

A

Sound waves are funneled into the canal and amplified; natural acidity helps to protect against infections; secretes cerumen (ear wax) to protect the canal from drying out.

104
Q

What is the function of the eardrum?

A

Sound waves from the external auditory canal hit this membrane and cause it to vibrate; reproduces frequency and form of sound wave.

105
Q

What is the function of the ossicles within the ear?

A

Form the mechanical linkages between the tympanic membrane and the inner ear; deliver sound vibrations to inner ear fluids.

106
Q

What is the function of the cochlea?

A

Converts stimulus from outside environment into nerve impulses for transmission to the brain.

107
Q

What are the functions of the vestibule of the ear?

A

Perceives static balance.

108
Q

What are the functions of the semicircular canals?

A

Hair cells within canals perceive sense of balance and space; fluid flows in certain directions when you move your head; different movements affect different canals; aids in maintaining balance and has nothing to do with hearing.

109
Q

The special sense which interprets the position of the head permitting the CNS to maintain stability and posture when the head and body are not moving; it is detected by mechanoreceptors in the vestibule of the inner ear, the utricle and saccule, which each contain a macula with the receptors

A

Static equilibrium.

110
Q

The special sense which interprets balance when one is moving, or at least the head is moving; the semicircular canals contain the receptors for dynamic equilibrium; within each semicircular canal is a complex mechanoreceptor called a crista ampullaris which contains the mechanoreceptors (Hair cells)

A

Dynamic equilibrium.

111
Q

Differentiate between static and dynamic equilibrium: which structures are responsible for each?

A
  • Static equilibrium interprets the position of the head when the body is not moving;
    Receptors: vestibule of the inner ear, utricle and saccule.
  • Dynamic equilibrium is the sense of balance when the head is moving.
    Receptors: semicircular canals and hair cells.
112
Q

What structure is responsible for eye color?

A

The iris.

113
Q

What structure is responsible for pupil size?

A

The muscles in the iris.

114
Q

What structure is responsible for the blind spot of the eye?

A

area on the retina without photoreceptors where optic nerve exits the eye

115
Q

What structure is responsible for the focal point of the eye?

A

Fovea.

116
Q

Where are the actual sensors for hearing?

A

Organ of Corti.

117
Q

Where are the actual sensors for equilibrium?

A

Maculae, hair cells, semicircular canals, vestibule.

118
Q

sensory receptors for hearing

A

Organ of Corti.

119
Q

associated with static equilibrium and head position

A

Maculae.

120
Q

Descrcbe and provide the location of the nasal epithelium?

A

Consists of 3 kinds of cells:
Olfactory receptor cells
Supporting cells
Basal cells

  • Occupies the superior part of nasal cavity.
  • Covers the inferior surface of the cribriform plate
  • Extends along the superior nasal concha
121
Q

Describe and provide the location of the taste buds?

A

Taste buds are found primarily distributed over the surface of the tongue in bulges or projections called PAPILLAE. There are four types of papillae in humans. They are: fungiform, filiform, foliate, and circumvallate (vallate) papillae.

122
Q

What are the accessory structures of the eye?

A
  • Eyebrow.
  • Eyelids.
  • Eyelashes.
  • Conjunctiva.
  • Lacrimal Apparatus.
  • Eye muscles.
123
Q

the strip of hair growing on the ridge above a person’s eye socket.

A

Eyebrow.

124
Q

either of two folds of skin that can be moved to cover or open the eye

A

Eyelid.

125
Q

each of the short curved hairs growing on the edges of the eyelids, serving to protect the eyes from dust particles.

A

Eyelashes.

126
Q

a transparent membrane covering the eyeball and under surface of the eyelid

A

Conjunctiva.

127
Q

the structures that secrete and drain tears from the eye

A

Lacrimal apparatus.

128
Q

any of six small muscles that control the horizontal, vertical, and rotating movements of the eyeball.

A

Eye muscles.

129
Q

How is pain regulated within the brain?

A

Endorphins and enkaphalins work together to inhibit the transmission of pain receptors into the brain, therefore eliminating the amount of pain felt throughout the body.

130
Q

What are the 2 cavities of the eye and which fluids are found where?

A

Anterior and posterior.

  • aqueous humor is found in the anterior cavity.
  • Vitreous humor is found in the posterior cavity.
131
Q

What are the three layers of the eyeball?

A

From superficial to deep:

  • Fibrous tunic
  • Vascular tunic
  • Retina
132
Q

What is the fibrous tunic?

A
  • External layer of the eyeball
  • Avascular
  • Consists of:
  • Sclera
  • Cornea`
133
Q

What is the sclera?

A

White of the eye

134
Q

What is the iris?

A
  • Colored portion of the eye
  • Hole in the middle is the pupil
  • Part of the vascular tunic
135
Q

What is the retina?

A

aka Sensory Tunic

  • Deepest layer of the eye
  • Optic nerve is a continuation of the the retina
  • Consists of:
  • Rods and cones
  • Macula Lutea
  • Fovea Centralis
  • Optic Disc
136
Q

What are rods and cones?

A
  • Specialized cells involved with vision
  • Rods are used for black and white vision “night vision”
  • Cones are used for color vision “day vision”
137
Q

What is the optic disc?

A

Location at which the retina exits the eye (becoming the optic nerve)

  • There are no rods and cones here, just blood vessels
  • This area is also known as the blind spot
138
Q

How do taste/smell senses differ?

A

Taste senses are done by the dissolving of chemicals in the mouth, whereas smell is stimulated by the inhaling of vapors around the body.

139
Q

Can taste/smell receptors regenerate? Why not or How?

A

Chemical receptors regenerate themselves continuously through a process called neurogenesis.

140
Q

Which cranial nerve provides ANS control to visceral organs?

A

Vagus.

141
Q

What ANS functions are purely controlled by the Sympathetic division?

A

Fight or flight, dialation of the cardiovascular system, adrenaline secretion.

142
Q

What is the difference between the somatic and the autonomic nervous system?

A

Somatic deals with the external factors, and autonomic works within the body.

143
Q

monitoring a body function that’s normally automatic and training it to be controlled and manual.

A

Biofeedback.

Anatomy & Phisiology I. (6 decks)

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