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BIO 203 Vertebrate Anatomy Physio > The Nervous System > Flashcards

The Nervous System Flashcards

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1
Q

the nervous system and endocrine system coordinate

A

other organ systems to maintain homeostasis

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2
Q

the nervous system is

A

fast, short acting

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3
Q

the endocrine system is

A

slower, but longer lasting

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4
Q

the nervous system is

A

the most complex system in the body

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5
Q

functions of the nervous system

A

-monitors the body’s internal and external environments
-integrates sensory information
-coordinates voluntary and involuntary responses

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6
Q

anatomical divisions are

A

central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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7
Q

central nervous system (CNS)

A

-made up of the brain and spinal cord
-integrates and coordinates input and output

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8
Q

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

-all the neural tissues outside of the CNS
-the connection between the CNS and the organs

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9
Q

functionals divisions are

A

afferent and efferent divisions

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10
Q

afferent division (in)

A

includes sensory receptors and neurons that send information to the CNS

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11
Q

efferent division (out)

A

includes neurons that send information to the effectors, which are the muscles and glands

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12
Q

efferent division divided into

A

somatic nervous system (SNS) and autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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13
Q

somatic nervous system (SNS)

A

controls skeletal muscle

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14
Q

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A

controls smooth and cardiac muscle, and glands

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15
Q

two parts of autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic divison

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16
Q

neurons

A

-cells that communicate with one another and other cells
-have a very limited ability to regenerate when damaged or destroyed

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17
Q

basic structure of a neuron includes

A

-cell body
-dendrites
-axons
-axon terminals

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18
Q

dendrites

A

which receive signals

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19
Q

axons

A

which carry signals to the next cell

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20
Q

axon terminals

A

bulb-shaped ending that form a synapse with the next cell

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21
Q

cell bodies contains

A

-mitochondria, free and fixed ribosomes, and rough endoplasmic reticulum
-the axon hillock
-where electrical signal begins

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22
Q

structural classification of neurons

A

based on the relationship of the dendrites to the cell body
-multipolar, unipolar, bipolar neurons

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23
Q

multipolar neurons

A

are the most common in the CNS and have two or more dendrites and one axon

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24
Q

unipolar neurons

A

have the cell body off to one side, most abundant in the afferent division

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25
Q

bipolar neurons

A

have one dendrite and one axon with the cell body in the middle, and are rare (special senses)

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26
Q

sensory neurons also called

A

afferent neurons

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27
Q

sensory neurons

A

-total million or more
-receive information from sensory receptors

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28
Q

somatic sensory receptors

A

detect stimuli concerning the outside world, in the form of external receptors
-and our position in it, in the form of proprioceptors

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29
Q

visceral or internal receptors

A

monitor the internal organs

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30
Q

motor neurons also called

A

efferent neurons

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31
Q

motor neurons

A

-total about half a million in number
-carry information to peripheral targets called effectors

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32
Q

somatic motor neurons

A

innervate skeletal muscle

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33
Q

visceral motor neurons

A

innervate cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands

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34
Q

interneurons (also called association neurons)

A

-by far the most numerous type at about 20 billion
-are located in the CNS
-function as links between sensory and motor processes
-have higher functions
-such as memory, planning, and learning

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35
Q

neuroglial cells

A

-are supportive cells and make up about half of all neural tissue
-four types are found in the CNS
-two types in the PNS

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36
Q

4 types of neuroglial cells in CNS

A

-astrocytes
-oligodendrocytes
-microglia
-ependymal cells

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37
Q

2 types of neuroglial in PNS

A

-satellite cells
-schwann cells

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38
Q

astrocytes

A

-large and numerous neuroglia in the CNS
-maintain the blood-brain barrier

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39
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

-produce an insulating membranous wrapping around axons called myelin
-small gaps between the wrapping called nodes of Ranvier
myelinated axons constitute the white matter of the CNS
-where cell bodies are grey matter
-some axons are unmyelinated

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40
Q

microglia

A

-the smallest and least numerous
-phagocytic cells derived from white blood cells
-perform essential protective functions such as engulfing pathogens and cellular waste

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41
Q

ependymal cells

A

-line the fluid-filled central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain
-the endothelial lining is called the ependyma
-it is involved in producing and circulating cerebrospinal fluid around the CNS

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42
Q

satellite cells

A

-surround and support neuron cell bodies
-similar in function to the astrocytes in the CNS

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43
Q

schwann cells

A

-cover every axon in PNS
-the surface is the neurilemma
-produce myelin

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44
Q

organization of the nervous system in the PNS

A

-collections of nerve cell bodies are ganglia
-bundled axons are nerves
-including spinal nerves and cranial nerves
-can have both sensory and motor components

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45
Q

organization of the nervous system in the CNS

A

-collections of neuron cell bodies are found in centers, or nuclei
-neural cortex is a thick layer of gray matter
-white matter in the CNS is formed by bundles of axons called tracts, and in the spinal cord, form columns
-pathways are either sensory or ascending tracts, or motor or descending tracts

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46
Q

the membrane potential exists because of

A

-excessive positive ionic charges on the outside of the cell
-excessive negative charges on the inside, creating a polarized membrane
-an undisturbed cell has a resting membrane potential measured in the inside of the cell in millivolts
-the resting membrane potential of neurons in -70 mV

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47
Q

factors determining membrane potential

A

-extracellular fluid (ECF) is high in Na+
-intracellular fluid (ICF) is high in K+ and negatively charged proteins (Pr-)
-proteins are non-permeating, staying in the ICF

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48
Q

changes in membrane potential

A

-stimulus causes opening of Na+ channels
-opening of Na+ channels results in an influx of Na+
-moving the membrane toward 0 mV, a shift called
depolarization
-opening of K+ channels results in an efflux of K+
-moving the membrane further away from 0 mV, a shift
called hyperpolarization
-return to resting from depolarization: repolarizing

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49
Q

a change in the membrane that travels the entire length of neurons (action potentials)

A

a nerve impulse

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50
Q

if a combination of graded potentials causes the membrane to reach a critical point of depolarization, it is called the threshold (action potentials)

A

then an action potential will occcur

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51
Q

action potentials are

A

-all-or-none and will propagate down the length of the neuron
-from the time the voltage-gated channels open until repolarization is finished:
-the membrane cannot respond to further stimulation
-this period of time is the refractory period
-and limits the rate of response by neurons

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52
Q

propagation of an action potential

A

-occurs when local changes in the membrane in one site:
-result in the activation of voltage-gated channels in the
next adjacent site of the membrane
-this causes a wave of membrane potential changes
-continuous propagation
-occurs in unmyelinated fibers and is relatively slow
-saltatory propagation
-is in myelinated axons and is faster

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53
Q

the synapse

A

-a junction between a neuron and another cell
-occurs because of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters
-communication happens in one direction only
-between a neuron and another cell type is a neuroeffector junction
-such as the neuromuscular junction or neuroglandular junction

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54
Q

a synapse between two neurons occurs

A

-between the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron
-across the synaptic cleft
-to the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron

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55
Q

the synapse between two neurons neurotransmitters

A

-stored in vesicles of the axon terminals
-released into the cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane

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56
Q

important neurotransmitters

A

-acetylcholine (ACh)
-norepinephrine (NE)
-dopamine, GABA, and serotonin
-at least 50 less-understood neurotransmitters
-NO and CO

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57
Q

norepinephrine (NE)

A

in the brain and part of the ANS

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58
Q

dopamine, GABA, and serotonin

A

are CNS neurotransmitter(only in the CNS)

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59
Q

NO and CO

A

are gases that act as neurotransmitters

60
Q

usually, ACh and NE trigger depolarization

A

-an excitatory response
-with the potential of reaching threshold

61
Q

usually, dopamine, GABA, and serotonin trigger hyperpolarization

A

-an inhibitory response
-making it farther from threshold

62
Q

neuronal pools

A

multiple presynaptic neurons can synapse with one postsynaptic neuron

63
Q

if they all release excitatory neurotransmitters

A

then an action potential can be triggered

64
Q

if they all release an inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

then no action potential can occur

65
Q

if half release excitatory and half inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

they cancel, resulting in no action

66
Q

neuronal pools is a

A

term that describes the complex grouping of neural pathway or circuits

67
Q

divergence

A

is a pathway that spreads information from one neuron to multiple neurons

68
Q

convergence

A

is when several neurons synapse with a single postsynaptic neuron

69
Q

divergence (1 to 2 to 3)

A

a mechanism for spreading stimulation to multiple neurons or neuronal pools in the CNS

70
Q

convergence (4 to 1)

A

a mechanism for providing input to a single neuron from multiple sources

71
Q

the meninges

A

the neural tissue in the CNS is protected by three layers of specialized membranes

72
Q

levels of meninges

A
  1. dura mater
  2. arachnoid mater
    -subarachnoid space
  3. pia mater
73
Q

spinal cord structure

A

the major neural pathway between the brain and the PNS
can also act as an integrator in the spinal reflexes
-31 pairs of spinal nerves in humans
consistent in diameter excerpt for the cervical enlargement and lumbar enlargement
-where numerous nerves supply upper and lower limbs
central canal
-a narrow passage containing cerebrospinal fluid

74
Q

spinal segments are identified by

A

a letter and number relating to the nearly vertebrae (eg C5, T3, L1)

75
Q

spinal segemnts

A

each has a pair of dorsal root ganglia
-containing the cell bodies of sensory neurons with axons in dorsal root
ventral roots contain motor neuron axons
-roots are contained in one spinal nerve

76
Q

sectional anatomy of spinal cord

A

the central gray matter is made up of glial cells and nerve cell bodies
projections of gray matter are called horns
-which extend out into the white matter
white matter is myelinated and unmyelinated axons
the location of cell bodies in specific nuclei of gray matter relate to their function
white matter can be organized into three columns
-which contain either ascending tracts to the brain, or descending tracts from the brain to the PNS

77
Q

six major regions of the brain

A

cerebrum, diencephalon, midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum

78
Q

the cerebrum

A

is divided into two paired cerebral hemispheres

79
Q

deep to the cerebrum is the diencephalon

A

which is divided into the epithalamus, thalamus and hypothalamus

80
Q

the brain stem

A

contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

81
Q

the cerebellum

A

is the most inferior/posterior part

82
Q

the ventricles of the brain

A

filled with cerebrospinal fluid and lined with ependymal cells

83
Q

filled with cerebrospinal fluid and lined with ependymal cells

A

the two lateral ventricles within each cerebral hemisphere drain through the:
interventricular foramen into the:
third ventricle in the diencephalon, which drains through the cerebral aqueduct into the:
fourth ventricle, which drains into the central canal

84
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A

-surrounds and bathes the exposed surfaces of the CNS
-transport nutrients, chemicals, and wastes
-is produced by the choroid plexus
-continually secreted and replaced

85
Q

the cerebrum

A

contains an outer gray matter called the cerebral cortex
-deep gray matter in the cerebral nuclei and white matter of myelinated axons beneath the cortex and around the nuclei
the surface of the cerebrum
-folds into gyri
-separated by depressions called sulci or deeper grooves called fissures

86
Q

the cerebral hemispheres includes

A

temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe

87
Q

the temporal lobe

A

-inferior to the lateral sulcus
-overlaps the insula

88
Q

the parietal lobe

A

-extends between the central sulcus and the parieto-occipital sulcus

89
Q

the occipital lobe

A

located mostly posteriorly

90
Q

the cerebral hemispheres

A

the lobes are named from the cranial bone above it
each lobe has sensory regions and motor regions
each hemisphere sends and receives information from the opposite side of the body

91
Q

motor and sensory areas of the cortex

A

are divided by the central sulcus
the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe
-contains the primary motor cortex
the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe
-contains the primary sensory cortex
the visual cortex is in the occipital lobe
the gustatory, auditory, and olfactory cortexes are in the temporal lobe

92
Q

association areas

A

interpret incoming information
coordinate a motor response, integrating the sensory and motor cortexes
the somatic sensory association are
-helps to recognize touch
the somatic motor association area
-is responsible for coordinating movement

93
Q

cortical connections

A

regions of the cortex are linked by the deeper white matter
the left and right hemispheres are linked across the corpus callosum
other axons link the cortex with:
-the diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum, and spinal cord

94
Q

higher-order centers

A

integrative areas, usually only in the left hemisphere
the general interpretive area or Wernicke’s area
-integrates sensory information to form visual and auditory memory
the speech center or Broca’s area
-regulates breathing and vocalization, the motor skills needed for speaking

95
Q

the prefrontal cortex

A

in the frontal lobe
coordinates information from the entire cortex

96
Q

skills such as (the prefrontal cortex)

A

-predicting time lines
-making judgements

97
Q

feelings such as (the prefrontal cortex)

A

frustration, tension, and anxiety

98
Q

hemispheric lateralization

A

the concept that different brain functions can and do occur on one side of the brain
present in humans as well as nonhuman animals

99
Q

the left hemisphere

A

tends to be involved in language skills, analytical tasks, and logic

100
Q

the right hemisphere

A

tends to be involved in analyzing sensory input and relating it to the body, as well as analyzing emotional content

101
Q

fact memory

A

the recall of bits of information

102
Q

skill memory

A

learned motor skill that can become incorporated into unconscious memory

103
Q

short-term memory

A

doesn’t last long unless rehearsed
converting into long-term memory through consolidation

104
Q

long-term memory

A

remains for long periods, sometimes an entire lifetime

105
Q

amnesia

A

memory loss as result of disease or trauma

106
Q

the limbic system

A

-includes the olfactory cortex, basal nuclei, gyri, and tracts between the cerebrum and diencephalon
-a functional grouping, rather than an anatomical one
-establishes the emotional states
-links the conscious with the unconscious
-aids in long-term memory with help of the hippocampus

107
Q

the diencephalon

A

-contains switching and relay centers
-centers integrate conscious and unconscious sensory information and motor commands
-surround third ventricle

108
Q

three components in the diencephalon

A

epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus

109
Q

the epithalamus

A

-lies superior to the third ventricle and forms the roof of the diencephalon
-the anterior part contains choroid plexus
-the posterior part contains the pineal gland that is endocrine and secretes melatonin

110
Q

the thalamus

A

-the left and right thalamus are separated by the third ventricle
-the final relay point for sensory information
-only a small part of this input is sent on to the primary sensory cortex

111
Q

the hypothalamus

A

-lies inferior to the third ventricle
-the subconscious control of skeletal muscle contraction is associated with strong emotion
-adjusts the pons and medulla functions
-coordinates the nervous and endocrine systems
-secretes hormones
produces sensations of thirst and hunger
-coordinates voluntary and ANS function
-regulates body temperature
-coordinates daily cycles

112
Q

reticular formation found in the midbrain

A

is a network of nuclei related to the state of wakefulness

113
Q

pons control

A

basal breathing rate and depth

114
Q

the medulla oblongata

A

-connects the brain with the spinal cord
-contains reflex centers

115
Q

cardiovascular centers

A

adjust heart rate and arteriolar diameter

116
Q

respiratory rhythmicity centers

A

regulate respiratory rate

117
Q

visceral reflexes

A

maintain a balance of function in the organ systems of the body

118
Q

the cerebellum

A

An automatic processing center
-Which adjusts postural muscles to maintain balance
Programs and fine-tunes movements
The cerebellar peduncles
-Are tracts that link the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and brain stem
Ataxia
-Is disturbance of coordination
-Can be caused by damage to the cerebellum

119
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

-links the CNS to the rest of the body through peripheral nerves
-they include the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves
-the cell bodies of sensory and motor neurons are contained in the ganglia

120
Q

the crainal nerves

A

12 pairs, notes as Roman numerals I through XII
Some are:
-only motor pathways
-only sensory pathways
-mixed, having both sensory and motor neurons

121
Q

the olfactory nerves (N I)

A

-are connected to the cerebrum
-carry information concerning the sense of smell

122
Q

the optic nerves (N II)

A

-carry visual information from the eyes, through the optic foramina of the orbits to the optic chiasm
-continue as the optic tracts to the nuclei of the thalamus

123
Q

the oculomotor nerves (N III)

A

-motor only, arising in the midbrain
-innervate four of six extrinsic eye muscles and the intrinsic eye muscles that control the size of the pupil

124
Q

the trochlear nerves (N IV)

A

-smallest, also arise in the midbrain
-innervate the superior oblique extrinsic muscles of the eyes

125
Q

the trigeminal nerves (N V)

A

-have nuclei in the pons, are the largest cranial nerves
-have three branches

126
Q

the abducens nerves (N VI)

A

-innervate only the lateral rectus extrinsic eye muscle, with the nucleus in the pons

127
Q

the facial nerves (N VII)

A

-Mixed, and emerge from the pons
-Sensory fibers monitor proprioception in the face
-Motor fibers provide facial expressions; control tear and salivary glands

128
Q

The vestibulocochlear nerves (N VIII)

A

-respond to sensory receptors in the inner ear

129
Q

the glossopharyngeal nerves (N IX)

A

-Mixed nerves innervating the tongue and pharynx
-Their nuclei are in the medulla oblongata
-The sensory portion monitors taste on the posterior third of the tongue and monitors BP and blood gases
-The motor portion controls pharyngeal muscles used in swallowing, and fibers to salivary glands

130
Q

the vagus nerves (N X)

A

-Have sensory input vital to autonomic control of the viscera
-Motor control includes the soft palate, pharynx, and esophagus
-Are a major pathway for ANS output to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and digestive glands

131
Q

the accessory nerves (N XI)

A
132
Q

the accessory nerves (N XI)

A

-Have fibers that originate in the medulla oblongata
-Also in the lateral gray horns of the first five cervical segments of the spinal cord

133
Q

the hypoglossal nerves (N XII)

A

-provide voluntary motor control over the tongue

134
Q

the spinal nerves

A

-Found in pairs grouped according to the region of the vertebral column
-Thirty-one pairs in humans:
-8 pairs of cervical nerves, C1–C8
-12 pairs of thoracic nerves, T1–T12
-5 pairs of lumbar nerves, L1–L5
-5 pairs of sacral nerves, S1–S5
-1 pair of coccygeal nerves, Co1

135
Q

dermatome

A

a clinically important area monitored by a specific spinal nerve

136
Q

reflexes

A

-rapid, autonomic, unlearned motor response to a stimulus
-usually removes or opposes the original stimulus
-monosynaptic reflexes

137
Q

monosynaptic reflexes example

A

for example, the stretch reflex
-the simplest, with only one synapse
-the best known stretch reflex is probably the knee-jerk reflex

138
Q

types of complex reflexes

A

polysynaptic reflexes, withdrawal reflexes, reciprocal inhibition

139
Q

polysynaptic reflexes

A

-with at least one interneuron
-are slower than monosynaptic reflexes, but can activate more than one effector

140
Q

withdrawal reflexes

A

-like the flexor reflex, move a body part away from the stimulation
-like touching a hot stove

141
Q

reciprocal inhibition

A

-blocks the flexor’s antagonist
-to ensure that flexion is in no way interfered with

142
Q

the autonomic nervous system

A

-Unconscious adjustment of homeostatically essential visceral responses
-Sympathetic division
-Parasympathetic division
-The somatic NS and ANS are anatomically different
-SNS: one neuron to skeletal muscle
-ANS: two neurons to cardiac and smooth muscle, glands, and fat cells

143
Q

the sympathetic divison (also called the “fight-or-flight” division)

A

Effects
-Increase in alertness, metabolic rate, sweating, heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscle
-Dilates the respiratory bronchioles and the pupils
-Blood flow to the digestive organs is decreased
-E and NE from the adrenal medullae support and prolong the effect

144
Q

the parasympathetic division (also called “rest-and-digest” division)

A

Effect
-Constriction of the pupils, increase in digestive secretions, increase in digestive tract smooth muscle activity
-Stimulates urination and defecation
-Constricts bronchioles, decreases heart rate

145
Q

dual innervation

A

-Refers to both divisions affecting the same organs
-Mostly have antagonistic effects
-Some organs are innervated by only one division

146
Q

aging and the nervous system

A

Common changes
-Reduction in brain size and weight and reduction in number of neurons
-Reduction in blood flow to the brain
-Change in synaptic organization of the brain
-Increase in intracellular deposits and extracellular plaques
-Senility can be a result of all these changes

BIO 203 Vertebrate Anatomy Physio (8 decks)

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