The Global War, 1955-63: Cold War rivalries -> The Berlin Crisis Flashcards
1
Q
When did Khrushchev become the USSR’s prime minister?
A
In 1958 (and its supreme leader)
2
Q
What factors would influence Khrushchev’s actions?
A
- The Soviet space programme appeared to dominate over the US space programme
- West Germany was now a member of NATO so it could become equipped with nuclear weapons, inevitably threatening Soviet security
- The USSR’s hold on parts of EE was fragile -> heavy Soviet defence spending was draining resources from this region and undermining confidence in the communist system
- There were no significant restrictions on GDR citizens leaving the country and fleeing to the more prosperous and capitalist West -> further undermined GDR’s economy
- The West had not yet recognised the existence of the GDR
3
Q
What events demonstrate existing tensions over Germany?
A
- Paris Conference of Foreign Ministers (April-July 1946)
- Bizonia (January 1947)
- Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers (Spring 1947)
- London Conference (Autumn 1947)
4
Q
What was discussed at the Paris Conference of Foreign Ministers?
A
- The USSR insisted that Germany provide it with $10 billion in reparations
- James F. Byrnes, the US Secretary of State, insisted that this could occur, but only when Germany was back on its feet and had a trade surplus
5
Q
What was discussed at the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers in Spring 1947?
A
- The Soviets tried to destroy Bizonia by demanding that a new central German government be created
- This was opposed by Ernest Bevin, the British Foreign Secretary - clever manoeuvring (political unity to follow economic unity)
- Soviets disagreed - this was seen as a ‘successful failure’ by the USA and UK
6
Q
What did the London Conference of Autumn 1947 reveal?
A
All the issues were aired and bitterly divisions were revealed
7
Q
What were the key features of the Berlin Blockade?
A
- 24th June 1948 - 12th May 1949
- The French merged their zone with Britain + America, creating Trizonia
- Americans launched a new currency, the deutschmark, with the aim of fostering economic recovery in Western Germany
- Stalin argued that since the Western powers were against German reunification, and were instead going to create a West German nation, they had no reason to stay in Berlin (in East Germany)
8
Q
What was the impact of the Berlin Blockade?
A
Deepened the East-West split in Europe, destroying whatever hope still existed for a settlement on Germany to which all four occupying powers could agree
9
Q
Outline the division of Germany:
A
- April 1949: NATO was established
- May 1949: the Western powers created the FDR
- September 1949: Konrad Adenauer was elected Chancellor of the West German state
- October 1949: the Soviets established the German Democratic Republic (DDR)
10
Q
What was the impact of the division of Germany?
A
Europe’s Cold War lines were now clearly drawn, the division of Germany between east and west mirroring the wider division of Europe into American-led and Soviet-led spheres
11
Q
What can Germany be described as?
A
- The key battleground of the Cold War
- Berlin = capital city of the Cold War
- Germany = a power vacuum (from 1945, a fallen hegemon)
12
Q
What was the significance of NATO’s creation?
A
It tied Western European countries into a US-led military bloc. Its creation represented the abandonment of the USA’s historic isolationism
13
Q
What were the consequences of the Blockade and Germany’s divide?
A
- The Blockade significantly damaged Stalin’s reputation and the thus of local communist parties in Western Europe linked to the USSR - made adoption of communism in Western Europe less likely
- Crisis gave West Germans confidence in American support and led opinion in the West to become sympathetic to Germans only a few years after it wrecked most of Europe
- West Berlin became symbolic of Western determination to prevent the spread of communism as a political force -> West made the city a capitalist showpiece, pouring lots of funding into it
14
Q
When was the Stalin note?
A
March 1952
15
Q
What was the Stalin note?
A
A document delivered to the Western allies, proposing the reunification and neutralisation of Germany
16
Q
What did the Stalin note demand?
A
No conditions on economic policies and with guarantees for “the rights of man and basic freedoms, including freedom of speech, press, religious persuasion, political conviction, and assembly” and free activity of democratic parties and organisations
17
Q
How did the US respond to the Stalin note?
A
Negatively - probably because it feared that a free, neutral, demilitarised Germany might eventually fall under Soviet control
18
Q
What was Stalin’s proposal met with from the FRG?
A
- Stalin’s proposal was met with intense suspicion in the FRG, which instead signed the European Defence Community Treaty that month
- it became clear to both the Soviet Union and the GDR that Germany would remain divided indefinitely.
19
Q
What did Stalin and Khrushchev want from East Germany?
A
- Didn’t want East Germany but wanted security
- Wanted East Germany to be neutral
- Khrushchev would’ve dropped East Germany if the USSR was secure
20
Q
What were Khrushchev’s priorities as Soviet leader?
A
To strengthen the economy and defences of the USSR and global ideological expansion
- Berlin became the focal point for the fulfilment of these objectives
21
Q
How was the West German economy compared to East Germany?
A
From 1952-53, West Germany’s economy boomed while the East German economy was dismal
- due to surplus and freedom of movement into West Germany
22
Q
What do the Western powers think about the GDR?
A
The Western powers don’t recognise the GDR’s existence
- so has no embassies
- can’t form treaties
- no control of borders
23
Q
What did East Germany (DDR) want?
A
Sovereignty
- control of its own borders
- control of its own territory
24
Q
When was the East Berlin workers uprising?
A
June 1953
25
What provoked the East Berlin workers uprising?
Initially against the work quotas during the Sovietization process in East Germany. Later protests were against declining living conditions and Sovietization policies.
26
What are some statistics about the East Berlin workers uprising?
- 1-1.5 million demonstrators
Violently suppressed by tanks
- 100+ killed (some executed)
27
What was the impact of the East Berlin workers uprising?
Many workers lost faith in East Germany's socialist state following the uprising, disgusted by the violent suppression of the strikes
28
How long was there freedom of movement in both sectors for?
Until August 1961 (Berlin Wall)
29
Why was control of West Berlin by the Western powers an issue?
1) Problem for East Germany due to lack of sovereignty
- if you don't have control over your borders you can lose your population
2) Westerners, spies and officials could enter into East Berlin
30
When was the Austrian State Treaty?
May 1955
31
What was the Austrian State Treaty?
Multilateral treaty establishing Austria as a sovereign state
32
What effect did the Austrian State Treaty have on Soviet hopes?
Soviet hopes for a resolution of the German question were raised by the signing of this treaty at Vienna
33
What did the four occupying powers do in October 1955?
Britain, France, the USSR and USA left Austria and an independent, democratic and neutral Austrian state with few military capabilities was created
34
What impact did the Austrian State Treaty have on Khrushchev's career?
Important moment in his attempts to get peaceful coexistence
- "earned my big boy pants"
35
How did the SED come into power?
Due to Soviet occupation -> illegitimately
36
Who was Walter Ulbricht?
General Secretary of the SED, 1950-71
37
Who was Ulbricht known as by the Soviet government?
The "last Stalinist"
38
How did Ulbricht interpret Stalin's failed attempt at German reunification?
As a ‘green light’ to proceed with the "accelerated construction of socialism in the GDR", which the party announced at its Second Party Conference in July 1952.
39
What did Ulbricht do from 1952?
Combined payment of reparations to the USSR with an uncritical adherence to the Stalinist model of industrialisation
- needed to boost the dismal economy
40
What were the consequences of Ulbricht's policies?
- rapid deterioration of workers' living standards + clear downward trend in the living standard of East Germans.
- Food prices rose as a result of both the state's collectivisation policy (40% of the wealthier farmers in the GDR fled to the West), leaving over 1,900,000 acres of productive land to no good use = poor harvest in 1952.
- To ease economic strain on the state, the Politburo decided to increase work quotas on a compulsory basis by 10% across all state-owned factories: that is, workers now had to produce 10% more for the same wage.
41
What economical changes did Ulbricht do and what was its result?
- Used subsidised houses
- invested a lot of money into education so they had a lot skilled young people -> intensified issue of desertions as many ended up leaving East Germany for the West due to low wages and poor working conditions.
42
Was Khrushchev successful in the signing of the Austrian State Treaty?
He proposed that the allies and Soviets leave Austria
- works: Austria doesn't join NATO nor the Warsaw Pact
43
What control did Ulbricht impose?
- Kept control of East Germany with the Stasi (secret police)
- 13% of the population became informers by 1971
- known as surveillance socialism
- wants to watch the Nazis and defectors and enforce censorship and no freedom of speech
44
Who was Konrad Adenauer?
Chancellor of the FDR, 1949-65
45
What did Adenauer’s chief legal adviser draw up?
The Nuremberg race laws
46
What were Adenauer's aims?
- reunification of Germany
- rearmament of the FDR
- joined NATO to maintain strong relationship with the West
- to go back to 1939 borders
-> regain the parts that Poland and the USSR have (why the Warsaw Pact is created)
47
How was Adenauer useful to the Americans and West German elites?
Made a way for former Nazis to make their way into the public space
48
What "good lie" did Adenauer come up with?
That Nazism had no mass support
49
What did Adenauer begin to do in August 1950?
To pressure the West German allies to free all of the German war criminals in their custody
- also allowed many former Nazis to re-enter public life and the professions
50
What was granted in May 1955 to the FDR?
In May 1955, the USA, Britain and France granted the FDR full sovereignty and it was admitted to NATO
51
What political changes did Adenauer create?
- In November 1955, Adenauer launched a rearmament drive, creating a large and well-equipped conscript army, the Bundeswehr
- launched the Hallstein doctrine
52
What was the Hallstein doctrine?
- The FDR claimed an exclusive mandate to represent the whole of Germany, and it refused to recognise any of the states in the Soviet sphere in Eastern Europe
- refused to deal with those who do e.g. Poland and Hungary
- viewed it as an unfriendly act and an end to diplomatic relations
53
What socio-economic changes did Adenauer create?
- West Germany has an economic revival in the 1950s due to Nazi's super profits
- allowed former Nazis to re-enter public life and the work domain (often Middle class e.g. doctors, lawyers)
- Marshall aid also helped boost the economy (11% went to West Germany)
54
What had the West turned West Berlin into?
Heavy financial investment had turned the city into a flagship of Western capitalist success
55
What kind of personality did Adenauer have?
"the authoritarian personality"
- tested those who wanted to join the armed forces
- attended Frankfurt school
56
Why was Khrushchev pressured to act in Berlin?
- East German economy was severely weakened
- Its poverty provoked the Republikflucht
- Western economy was much more prosperous and attracted a wealth of young skilled workers
- pressure from Ulbricht to stop the outflow and resolve the status of Berlin
57
How did Khrushchev publicly refer to applying pressure where the West was most vulnerable?
As a 'bone in his throat'
- privately, as 'the testicles of the West'
58
What quote does Eisenhower say when outraged by Khrushchev?
'If the Russians want war over the Berlin issue, they can have it.'
- in the end, the administration decided to ignore Khrushchev's challenge and wait and see
59
Why was the East German economy weakened?
Payment of the German war reparations owed to the USSR severely weakened the East German economy
- By the early 1950s the Soviets had extracted some $10 billion in reparations in agricultural and industrial products
60
What induced the Republikflucht?
- The poverty of East Germany
- "desertion from the republic" to West Germany
- further weakening the GDR's economy
- Western economic opportunities induced a "brain drain" of skilled workers, technicians and professionals
61
How much had the brain drain cost East Germany?
- Potentially cost it over $22.5 billion marks in lost educational investment.
- The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the re-securing of the German communist frontier was imperative
62
What did Ulbricht fear?
That the GDR was at risk of collapse
- so pressured Khrushchev to stop the outflow and resolve the status of Berlin
63
Who did Ulbricht look to for support?
Mao in both this and in his opposition to the sort of destalinisation measures that a pro-Khrushchev faction in the SED, led by Karl Schirderwan favoured
64
What was the state of Sino-Soviet relations by 1958?
They were deteriorating and Khrushchev needed to strengthen the Soviet's credentials as the dominant communist power, in the face of increasing efforts by the Chinese to assume that role
65
Who was Karl Schirderwan?
A left-wing East-German Khrushchevite who wanted reform communism (anti-Stalin)
66
What did the Soviets fear from the West?
That the US would seek to address their fears of the accelerating competition from the Soviet Union in the nuclear arms race by placing nuclear missiles in West Germany
67
When was the Berlin ultimatum?
27th November 1958
68
What encouraged Khrushchev to deliver the ultimatum?
He was genuinely appalled by the situation in the DDR - he felt that its collapse would allow the FDR to fill the resulting power vacuum, and bring the Bundeswehr up to the borders of Poland and Czechoslovakia
- desperate for Soviet security
69
How did Khrushchev justify the Berlin ultimatum?
- He declared he had to remove the 'malignant tumour' of Berlin
- the West had to agree a German peace treaty within 6 months
- It must also 'liquidate the occupation regime' and turn Berlin into a demilitarised 'free city'
70
What did Khrushchev threaten in the ultimatum?
If the West did not agree to this, Khrushchev would unilaterally sign a treaty with the DDR and turn over all control of access to Berlin to the East Germans
71
How did Khrushchev believe he could strengthen the Soviet position?
He believed a propaganda victory against the Western powers, and particularly against the USA, in Berlin might strengthen the Soviet position
72
How did the Western powers react to the ultimatum?
On 31 December, they rejected the ultimatum
73
How did Eisenhower react to the Berlin ultimatum?
- He was incensed and made clear to the Soviets that access rights to the Western sectors of Berlin remained central to American policy
- reiterated America's commitment to West Germany
- stated he was prepared to use nuclear weapons to defend it (threatened brinkmanship)
74
When was the deadline for the ultimatum?
27th May 1959
75
What did Khrushchev do when the deadline came?
He quietly allowed it to pass and insisted the West had simply misunderstood him
- attempt to better relations
76
When did Khrushchev visit Camp David?
In September 1959
- negotiated with Eisenhower
- Although the talks were inconclusive and the uneasy status quo continued, it appeared that better relations were coming about
- peaceful coexistence working
77
What events suggested that peaceful coexistence was working?
- May 1955: Austrian State Treaty
- July 1955: Geneva Summit (Paris May 1960 Summit ruined by U-2 incident)
- September 1959: Camp David
- Summer 1959: VP Nixon visits the Kremlin -> kitchen debate
78
How did the U-2 incident destroy hopes for peaceful coexistence?
Any possible progress over the status of Berlin, the future of Germany, the creation of a nuclear-free zone in central Europe and the diplomatic recognition of the GDR were abruptly halted with the revelation that a US U-2 spy plane had been brought down over Soviet territory
79
Were the Americans successful in dealing with the Berlin ultimatum?
- It seemed like American intransigence had been successful
- Khrushchev's backing down was largely due to him recognising the USA's determination to maintain the established setup in Berlin, and the USA's willingness to risk nuclear war to do so
80
When was the Berlin crisis on the boil again?
By the summer of 1961
81
What issue was Ulbricht faced with that worsened?
The increase in the numbers of East Germans deserting their country
- October 1958: figure was 2 million
- By 1961, it was close to 3.5 million - about 25% of the DDR's population
- Khrushchev expected an immediate collapse of the DDR and its swift absorption by West Germany
82
How many people left East Germany between 1949 and mid-1961?
A staggering 2.7 million East Germans
83
What did Khrushchev quote about his fears of West German rearmament?
"The Bundeswehr would advance to the borders of Poland and Czechoslovakia and therefore near our borders"
84
What was the significance of these desertions from the GDR?
- This exodus of talented East Germans had been a continuous process
- many of these emigrates were skilled workers and those who were most able to contribute to East Germany's economic growth in the future
85
What also convinced Khrushchev to re-issue his ultimatum?
- Ulbricht pressuring Khrushchev backed by Mao to stop the brain drain
- Mao on Khrushchev's back demanding tougher action
- communism was under threat
- drastic measures were required
86
What did Khrushchev re-issue his ultimatum for?
His demand for East German control over Berlin and Western recognition of the DDR
87
When did Eisenhower step down?
January 1961 - Democrat John F. Kennedy won presidency
88
What did Kennedy vow to do?
To defend Berlin even at the cost of war
89
What did Khrushchev finally permit and when?
In mid-August 1961, Khrushchev finally permitted Ulbricht to build a large barrier along the East-West border in Berlin to prevent emigration
90
What was Kennedy like as a President?
Inexperienced in international politics, relied on British PM Harold MacMillan for guidance
91
When was the Vienna Summit?
June 4th-5th 1961
92
What line did Khrushchev take on Berlin with Kennedy at the Vienna Summit?
Khrushchev took an extremely tough line on Berlin with Kennedy
- Kennedy described the meeting as the "Worst thing in my life. He savaged me"
93
Why did Khrushchev take such a tough line with Kennedy?
1) Because Kennedy was still reeling from the effects of the failed Bay of Pigs operation against Cuba on 17th April 1961
2) Because Germany mattered to the USSR - especially since the FDR had joined NATO
94
What describes Khrushchev's approach to Kennedy?
Confrontational
- Did not use Vienna to rebuild relations
- instead he humiliates him
- end of peaceful coexistence
95
What did Khrushchev say after observing Kennedy's morose expression?
"Politics is a merciless business"
96
When was Khrushchev overthrown?
October 1964
97
Who was Willy Brandt?
- Pro-Western SPD mayor of West Berlin, 1957-66
- Left-wing but anti-communist
- Anti-Adenauer
- Hates the Hallstein doctrine
98
What was Willy Brandt's reaction to the Berlin wall?
He hated it, appalled by the wall and denounced it as tyranny
- increased hostility to the US because inability to deal with wall
99
How did Kennedy react to the second ultimatum?
Kennedy thought this put American - and his own personal - credibility directly under threat.
- Kennedy responded by saying "We cannot and will not permit the Communists to drive us out of Berlin"
100
What did Kennedy increase the defence budget by?
Kennedy increased the defence budget by $3.2 billion and allocated $207 million for a fallout shelter programme to prepare American people for a future nuclear attack by the USSR
- needed to get tough for his upcoming November 1962 mid-term elections
101
What did Khrushchev permit Ulbricht's government to do?
Rather than have the DDR size control of all of Berlin, Khrushchev permitted Ulbricht's government to do something different that solved the problem of people fleeing to the West -> building a wall
102
When did the DDR government start to construct a barbed wire barrier?
In August 1961
- to separate the Soviet and Western zones of the city
- soon became a permanent wall stationed with armed guards
- it was an ugly and dangerous symbol of Europe's division into Western and Soviet blocs
103
Where did US and Soviet tanks face off?
Checkpoint Charlie on 27th-28th October - but the USA backed down, allowing for an easing of tensions
104
What did the construction of the Berlin Wall solve?
The Berlin Crisis
- The main problem for the Soviets - West Berlin being an attractive symbol of Western capitalism that Germans would flee to - was no more
- The Wall, by stopping East Germans from leaving, also gave life support to Ulbricht's regime
105
What did the Berlin Wall not prevent?
- It didn't prevent Britain, France and the USA from entering East Berlin
- Didn't prevent West Berliners from entering East
106
What did Kennedy say about the wall?
"It's not a very nice solution...but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war" (October 1963)
- better alt than a war
- because of the wall, Kennedy never had to confront the difficult question of whether the USA would be willing to go to war over Berlin, a war that would cost millions of lives
107
What did Ulbricht call the Berlin Wall?
- An Anti-fascist protection wall
- 'bulwark of peace'
108
What did Ulbricht's description of the Berlin Wall justify?
Justifies the Berlin Wall as protecting the East Germans
109
Who built the Wall?
Ulbricht (East Germans) gave the order to build the war with Soviet support
110
When did the Wall begin to go up?
13th August 1961
111
When did President Kennedy deliver a speech to Berliners?
June 1963
112
What was Kennedy's speech called?
'Ich bin ein Berliner'
113
What is one quote from Kennedy's speech?
"All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin"
114
What is the significance of the Berlin Wall for the US?
Berlin was the acid test of the West's commitment to defend freedom by controlling expansionist communism
- Khrushchev had handed the US the finest propaganda tool
115
How was the wall a propaganda loss for the Soviets and GDR?
Needing to build a wall to stop your own population fleeing to the capitalist West seemed to admit the inferiority of the Soviet system
