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24-25 HUMAN ANATOMY > The Cardiovascular System > Flashcards

The Cardiovascular System Flashcards

1
Q

Describe blood transport

A
  • O2 carried from lungs to body tissues
  • CO2 carried from tissues to lungs to be removed
  • Nutrients carried from digestive tract to body tissues
  • Metabolic wastes carried to kidneys for removal
  • Hormones carried from endocrine cells to target organs
  • Stem cells transported from bone marrow to tissues, lodge and mature
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2
Q

Describe the role of blood in inflammation

A
  • WBC: destroy microorganisms and cancer cells
  • Antibodies: neutralize toxins, destroy pathogens
  • Platelets: release factors to intitiate blood clotting and to minimize blood loss
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3
Q

Describe the role of blood in regulation

A
  • Stabilizes pH of extracellular fluids by buffering acids and bases
  • Regulates body temperature by shifting blood flow (heat loss: routes blood to skin; heat conservation: retain blood deeper in the body)
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4
Q

Components of blood

A
  • Matrix of blood plasma: ~50% of blood volume
  • Plasma holds seven formed elements
    • RBC (erythrocytes)
    • WBC (five types of leukocytes)
    • Platelets (fragments of bone marrow cells)
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5
Q

Name the five types of leukocytes

A
  • Granulocytes (specific granules present in cytoplasm): neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
  • Agranulocytes: lymphocytes, monocytes
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6
Q

Components of blood plasma

A
  • Water (~92%)
  • Proteins
    • Albumin: buffers blood pH
    • Globulins: immune system
    • Fibrinogen: becomes fibrin used in blood clotting
  • Nutrients
  • Electrolytes
  • Hormones
  • Gases
  • Nitrogenous wastes
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6
Q

Functions of RBC (erythrocytes)

A
  • Transports O2 from lungs to body tissues
  • Removes CO2 from body tissues to lungs
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7
Q

Properties of RBC (erythrocytes)

A
  • No nucleus or internal structures
  • No mitochondria ➡ uses anaerobic respiration
  • Biconcave in shape, sunken in the centre
  • Glycolipids in plasma membrane determines blood type
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8
Q

What is haemoglobin?

A
  • Iron containing gas transport proteins in RBCs
  • Globins: two alpha protein chains, two beta protein chains
  • Heme: non-proteins bound to each protein chain
  • O2 binds to the iron atom, up to 4 transport
  • CO2 binds to the globins
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9
Q

Describe haematopoiesis and erythropoiesis

A
  • Haematopoietic tissues produce RBCs
  • Red bone marrow contains haematopoietic stem cells (HSC) ➡ forms RBCs, WBCs, or platelets
  • Erythropoiesis
    • HSC differentiate into erythrocyte colony forming units (ECFU)
    • Erythropoietin (produced by kidneys) causes ECFUs to become RBCs
    • RBCs have a lifespan of 120 days
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10
Q

How are blood types determined?

A
  • Glycolipids on the plasma membrane of RBCs
  • Includes ABO groups, Rh groups
  • Glycolipids act as antigens, causing an immune response
  • Blood contains antibodies reacting against foreign antigens ➡ agglutination of RBC or release of haemoglobin, clogging kidney tubules causing renal failure
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10
Q

Rhesus effects on newborns

A
  • Rh+ will not make anti-Rh antibodies
  • Rh- will make anti-Rh antibodies
  • Rh+ can receive both Rh+ and Rh-
  • Rh- can only receive Rh-
  • Incompatibility between mother and fetus leads to severe anaemia
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11
Q

Describe the features of neutrophils

A
  • A granulocyte
  • Most abundant WBC
  • Named polymorphonuclear leukocytes
    • Phagocytose engulf bacteria
    • Serete antimicrobial chemicals

Kill bacteria

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12
Q

Describe the features of eosinophils

A
  • A granulocyte
  • Numbers increase during parasitic infections or allergies

Kill parasitic worms

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13
Q

Describe the features of basophils

A
  • A granulocyte
  • Secrete histamine (a vasodilator) to increase blood flow to tissues
  • Secrete heparin (an anticoagulant) to promote mobility of other WBCs by preventing blood clotting
  • Overall: attract WBC to inflammation sites
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14
Q

Describe the features of monocytes

A
  • An agranulocyte
  • The largest WBC
  • Leaves blood, transforms into phagocytic macrophages that function in infections
  • Brain: Microglia
  • Lungs: Alveolar macrophages
  • Liver: Kupffer cells
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15
Q

Describe the features of lymphocytes

A
  • An agranulocyte
  • The smallest WBC
  • Fight viruses and tumors
  • Give rise to plasma cells
  • Specific immune response
  • E.g. Natural killer cells, B cells, T cells
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16
Q

Describe the features of platelets

A
  • Fragments of bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes
  • Maintains haemostasis
    • Secretes vasoconstrictors → vascular spasm
    • Sticks together, forming platelet plugs
    • Initiates formation of clot-dissolving enzymes
    • Secretes chemicals attracting neutrophils and monocytes to inflammation sites
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17
Q

Describe thrombopoiesis (process of platelet production)

A
  • Occurs in the bone marrow
  • Produced from haematopoietic stem cells, influenced by thrombopoietin (produced in the liver and kidneys)
  • Precursor: megakaryocytes
  • 25%-40% of platelets stored in the spleen
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18
Q

Describe the role of platelets in haemostasis (prevents excessive blood loss)

A
  • release serotonin, acts as vasoconstrictors (narrow blood vessels) to reduce blood loss
  • adhere to the blood vessel wall to form a platelet plug, seals breaks
  • release clotting factors that convert fibrinogen to fibrin
  • platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates production of new tissue to replace damaged tissue
  • secrete factor XII, forming plasmin to digest fibrin and dissolve the old clot
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19
Q

Blood disorders

A
  • Anaemia: RBC deficiency
  • Haemophilia: Hereditary disorder causing abnormally slow blood clotting
  • Septicaemia: bacterial infection, may cause septic shock
  • Infectious mononucleosis: infection of B lymphocytes with Epstein Barr virus
20
Q

What is sickle cell disease?

A
  • Heredity haemoglobin defect
  • Defective haemoglobin turns to gel at low O2 levels
  • RBCs elongate and stiffen → blocks circulation → severe pain/organ failure/stroke
21
Q

Pulmonary VS Systemic circuit

A
  • Pulmonary: carries blood to the lungs for gas exchange, then returns to heart
  • Systemic: supplies blood to the organs including lungs and the heart wall
22
Q

Describe the pulmonary circuit

A
  • Carries blood to lungs for gas exchange then returns to heart
  • Supplied by right side of heart
  • Receives deoxygenated blood from body → pumped into pulmonary artery → into the lungs
  • Oxygenated blood returned to the left side of the heart thru pulmonary veins
23
Q

Describe the systemic circuit

A
  • Supplies blood to organs
  • Supplied by left side of heart
  • Aorta delivers oxygen to organs
  • Deoxygenated blood returned to right side of heart thru superior/inferior vena cava
24
Q

Describe the pericardium

A
  • Double-walled sac enclosing the heart
  • Outer fibrous layer
  • Inner serous layer
    • Outer parietal layer
    • Inner visceral layer: adheres to heart surface to form the epicardium
  • Pericardial cavity: space between parietal and visceral layers
    • Contains pericardial fluid to lubricate and prevent friction
25
Q

Describe the features of the atrium

A
  • Superior chambers
  • Thin-walled
  • Receive blood returning to heart via veins, pump blood into ventricles
  • Auricle: ear-like extension to increase volume
  • Separated by interatrial septum
26
Q

Describe the features of the ventricles

A
  • Inferior chambers
  • Ejects blood into the arteries
  • Trabeculae carneae: internal ridges to prevent heart walls from sticking tgt when contracting
  • Separated by *interventricular septum**
27
Q

What are the sulci?

A
  • Grooves that mark the boundaries of the four chambers
  • Filled with fat and coronary blood vessels
28
Q

Describe the pathway of blood flow through the heart

A

Blood returning from systemic circuit

  • Arrives RA via superior/inferior vena cava
  • Flow thru tricuspid valve into RV
  • RV contracts, eject blood thru pulmonary valve into pulmonary artery

Blood returning from lungs

  • Arrives LA via pulmonary veins
  • Flow thru bicuspid valve into LV
  • LV contracts, eject blood thru aortic valve into aorta
29
Q

Describe the coronary circulation

A
  • Supplies oxygen and nutrients to cardiomyocytes
  • Left coronary artery
    • Anterior interventricular branch
    • Circumflex branch
  • Right coronary artery
    • Supplies RA and SA node
    • Right marginal branch
    • Small branch to AV node
    • Large posterior interventricular branch
30
Q

What happens when blood supply to the myocardium is obstructed?

A

Necrosis: death of body tissue

31
Q

Describe coronary artery disease

A
  • Narrowing leading to insufficient blood flow to the myocardium
  • Cause: Atherosclerosis (fatty deposits on arterial wall)
  • Consequence: Myocardial infarction (arteries blocked → sudden death of cardiac muscle deprived of its blood flow)
32
Q

Describe the components of the cardiac conducting system

A
  • SA node: pacemaker cells initiate heartbeat and determine heart rate
  • AV node: electrical gateway to ventricles
  • AV bundle: signals leave AV node, branch into left and right bundle branches
  • Purkinje fibres: distribute electrical excitation to ventricle myocytes
33
Q

Describe the structure of cardiac muscle

A
  • Striated
  • Cardiomyocytes
    • short, thick
    • branched ends: contacts other cells → forms network
    • single, central nucleus (surrounded by glycogen)
34
Q

Describe the nerve supply of the heart

A
  • Does NOT activate heartbeat
  • ONLY modifies rate and contraction strength
    • Sympathetic: increase heart rate
    • Parasympathetic: decrease heart rate
35
Q

What is the vasa vasorum?

A

Network of microvessels to supply nutrition, oxygen, and waste removal to blood vessles

36
Q

What are aneurysms?

A
  • Weak point in an artery or in the heart wall
  • Forms thin-walled sac that can rupture
  • Cause: combination of atherosclerosis and hypertension
  • Common sites: abdominal aorta, renal arteries, arterial circle (brain)
37
Q

Describe the classification of arteries

A
  • According to size
  • Conducting
    • Largest e.g. aorta, pulmonary trunk
    • Expands during systole, recoils during diastole
  • Distributing
    • Smaller branches
    • Distribute blood to specific organs e.g. renal arteries
  • Resistance
    • Small arteries with narrow diameters e.g. arterioles
38
Q

What are arterial sense organs?

A
  • Sensory receptors that monitor blood pressure and chemistry
  • Transmit to the brainstem to regulate heartbeat, vasomotion, respiration
  • Carotid sinuses
    • baroreceptors respond to changes in pressure
  • Carotid bodies
    • chemoreceptors monitor changes in blood composition to stabilize blood pH, CO2, O2 levels
  • Aortic bodies
    • chemoreceptors
39
Q

Describe the features of capillaries

A
  • Exchange vessels
  • Endothelium and basal lamina for support
  • Thin-walled
40
Q

Describe the classification of capillaries

A
  • Continuous capillaries
    • Found in most tissues and organs
  • Fenestrated capillaries
    • Filtration pores that penetrate endothelial lining
    • Rapid passage of small molecules
  • Sinusoids
    • irregular blood-filled spaces
    • wide gaps
    • allows entry of albumin, clotting factors, proteins from the liver
41
Q

Describe the classification of veins from smallest to largest

A
  • Postcapillary venules
    • Receive blood from capillaries
  • Muscular venules
  • Medium veins
    • Radial and ulnar veins
  • Venous sinuses
    • Coronary sinus of heart
  • Large veins
    • Vena cava, pulmonary veins
42
Q

Describe the circulatory pathway and its variations

A
  • Blood from heart - to arteries - to capillaries
    to venules to veins to heart
  • Exceptions
    • Hepatic portal system: Blood flows between two capillary beds
    • Anastomosis: Two veins or
      arteries merge without intervening capillaries
    • Eg Arteriovenous anastomosis: blood flows from artery directly into vein (fingers, palm)
    • Eg Arterial anastomosis: two arteries merge
    • Eg Venous anastomoses: one vein empties directly into another
43
Q

Describe the aorta and its branches

A
  • All systemic arteries arise from the aorta
  • The Ascending aorta
    • Coronary arteries
  • The Aorta arch
    • Brachiocephalic trunk
    • Left common carotid artery
    • Left subclavian artery
  • The Descending aorta
    • Descends thru thoracic and abdominal cavities
    • Thoracic aorta: above the diaphragm
    • Abdominal aorta: below the diaphragm
44
Q

What is the skeletal muscle pump?

A
  • Mainly in medium veins in the limbs
  • Presence of venous valves toward the heart
  • Prevent the blood from backflow when muscles relax
  • Varicose veins: Caused by failure of the valves
45
Q

What are the arteries of the head and neck?

A
  • Right and left common carotid arteries
  • Vertebral arteries (right and left subclavian artery)
  • Thyrocervical trunks (right and left subclavian artery)
  • The costocervical trunk (right and left subclavian artery)
46
Q

Continuation of the common carotid arteries

A

External carotid artery
* Superior thyroid artery – to the thyroid gland and larynx
* Lingual artery – To the tongue
* Facial artery – to the skin and muscles of face
* Occipital artery – Posterior scalp
* Maxillary artery – Teeth, maxilla, oral cavity and external ear
* Superficial temporal artery – Chewing muscles, nasal cavity, lateral aspect of face, scalp, dura mater surround brain etc.

Internal carotid artery
* Ophthalmic artery - Orbits, nose and forehead
* Anterior cerebral artery - Medial aspect of cerebral hemisphere
* Middle cerebral artery – Lateral region of temporal and parietal lobes

47
Q

Continuation of the vertebral arteries

A
  • Arise from subclavian arteries
  • Small branches to supply spinal cord and neck structures
  • Enter cranial cavity via foramen magnum, merge to
    form basilar artery
  • Basilar artery branches to supply cerebellum, pons, and inner ear
  • Basilar divides at pons-midbrain junction flow into
    cerebral arterial circle
48
Q

What is the cerebral arterial circle?

A
  • Blood supply to the brain
  • Surrounds the pituitary gland and optic chiasm
  • Receives blood from internal carotid and basilar arteries
  • Two posterior cerebral arteries
  • Two anterior cerebral arteries
  • A single anterior communicating artery
  • Two posterior communicating arteries
49
Q

What happens after blood circulates in the brain?

A
  • Blood circulates in brain → collects in Dural Venous Sinuses
  • Blood filled spaces between layers of
    dura mater
  • 13 dural Venous sinuses in total

24-25 HUMAN ANATOMY (7 decks)

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