The Brain, Cognitive, and Moral Development

Question 1

Name the 3 basic units of a neuron and their functions

Answer 1

cell body - provides energy and maintains structure

dendrites - receive info from other cells and relays it to cell body

axons - carry info away from cell body to other cells

Question 2

Why does white matter increase during adolescence?

Answer 2

there is an increase in myelination and in axon diameter

Question 3

What neurotransmitter is associated with reward seeking?

What does its increase result in?

Answer 3

dopamine

increase in dopamine results in increased risk taking and use of addictive drugs

Question 4

What are the most important structural changes in the brain during adolescence? (3)

Answer 4

• corpus callosum fibers thicken to process info between the 2 hemispheres more effectively
• prefrontal cortex begins to develop
• amygdala develops

Question 5

Explain sexual dimorphism of the corpus callosum (CC) (2)

Answer 5

Cross sectional area of CC is larger in females

therefore, female hemispheres are more extensively interconnected

Question 6

Distinguish between synaptogenesis and neurogenesis

Answer 6

Synaptogenesis - increase in connections between neurons (synapses)

Neurogenesis - process by which new neurons are formed in the brain

Question 7

Explain acute ethanol inhibition of neurogenesis (3)

Answer 7

binge alcohol exposure disrupts neurogenesis by:

• decreasing the number of proliferating cells
• increasing cell death
• reducing new cell survival in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus

Question 8

Define neuroplasticity

Answer 8

the ability of the nervous system to form and reorganize its structure, functions, or connections after damage or learning experience

Question 9

Define pruning

Name its benefits (2)

Answer 9

Pruning is the elimination of unnecessary synaptic connections

• strengthens neurons
• increases coordination and efficiency between neurons

Question 10

How does the generation of new brain cells change after adolescence?

Answer 10

it decreases in the transition to adulthood

Question 11

In which brain areas does neurogenesis occur?

Answer 11

Hippocampus
Olfactory bulb

Question 12

What does the acronym ESSENCE stand for? (4)

Answer 12

ES - emotional spark
SE - social engagement
N - novelty
CE - creative exploration

Question 13

What type of theory was Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 13

Constructivist - knowledge is not ready made, we are continually creating our own knowledge and organizing what we know

Question 14

What is Piaget’s theory? (4)

Answer 14

The Stage Theory - our mind develops through 4 stages of thinking:

1. Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)
2. Preoperational stage (2-7 years)
3. Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
4. Formal operational stage (11-15 years)

the sequence of stages is invariant - cannot be changed or skipped

Question 15

What is a schema?

Answer 15

a concept/framework that exists in the individual’s mind to organize and interpret info

Question 16

Explain the processes of Assimilation, Accommodation, and Equilibration (3)

Answer 16

Assimilation: incorporation of new info into existing knowledge

Accommodation: adjustment to new info, causing the schema to change

Equilibration: resolving of cognitive conflict to reach a balance

Question 17

What are the most important components of the formal operational stage? (6)

Answer 17

• Conception of possibilities
• Hypothetical deductive reasoning
• Interpropositional thinking
• Problem solving ability
• Meta cognition
• Systemic/combinatorial thinking

Question 18

Explain systematic/combinatorial thinking (2)

Answer 18

a technique for getting situation-wide insights into complex problems

combines analytical thinking and synthetical thinking

Question 19

What is metacognition?

Answer 19

thinking about one’s own thinking processes and understanding of how to regulate those processes to maximize learning

Question 20

What cognitive changes occur in adulthood? (3)

Answer 20

Possible 5th postformal stage characterized by
- realistic/pragmatic thinking
- reflective/relativistic thinking

Question 21

What approach does Vygotsky’s theory take?

Answer 21

social constructivist approach - emphasis on social interaction in learning

Question 22

What tasks fall in the Zone of Proximal Development?

Answer 22

tasks too difficult for adolescents to master alone but can be mastered with guidance

Question 23

What learning concepts fall under Vygotsky’s theory? (5)

Explain each one

Answer 23

Scaffolding - changing level of support over course of teaching

Cognitive Apprenticeship - expert supports learner’s understanding

Tutoring - similar to cognitive apprenticeship, not necessarily with an expert

Cooperative learning - students learning in small groups

Reciprocal teaching - students lead a small group

Question 24

Explain the information processing view

Answer 24

Information processing refers to how info gets absorbed, stored, and retrieved in an adolescent’s mind

Question 25

What are the basic concepts of the information processing view? (4)

Answer 25

- Cognitive resources - capacity of speed and processing - Attention and memory - selective/divided/sustained/executive - Cognitive control - controlling attention, reducing interfering thoughts - Executive functioning - higher order, complex cognitive processes

Question 26

What is social cognition?

Answer 26

how individuals conceptualize and reason about the social world they interact with

Question 27

Explain adolescent egocentrism (3)

Answer 27

- heightened self-consciousness - attention-seeking behaviour - personal fable: sense of uniqueness and belief that nobody understands how they feel

Question 28

Explain perspective taking

Answer 28

ability to assume another person's perspective and understand their feelings

Question 29

What are the 5 stages of perspective taking? Explain each one

Answer 29

0. egocentrism - fails to distinguish between self's and others' perspectives 1. social informational - aware that others have social perspective 2. self-reflective - aware that people know others have social perspective 3. mutual - can view interaction from a 3rd person perspective 4. social/conventional - realizes that mutual perspective doesn't always mean understanding

Question 30

Explain the implicit personality theory

Answer 30

adolescents: - consider previous and current info - detect situational variability - look for deeper hidden causes of personality

Question 31

Explain Piaget's view on the Cognitive Disequilibrium theory (2)

Answer 31

2 types of morality: - Heteronomous morality - consequences are used for judgement and rules cannot be changed - Autonomous morality - rules can be changed and intentions need to be considered for judgement

Question 32

Explain Hoffman's view on the cognitive disequilibrium theory (2)

Answer 32

during adolescence, individuals recognize that: - their set of beliefs is one of many - there is considerable debate about what's right/wrong

Question 33

What are Kohlberg's 3 levels of moral reasoning?

Answer 33

1. Pre-conventional morality 2. Conventional morality 3. Post conventional morality

Question 34

What are Kohlberg's 6 stages of moral reasoning? (within the 3 levels) (PI-GL-SU)

Answer 34

1. Punishment-obedience orientation 2. Instrumental relativist orientation 3. Good-boy-nice-girl orientation 4. Law and order orientation 5. Social contract orientation 6. Universal ethical principle orientation

Question 35

Name and describe Kohlberg's 1st stage of moral reasoning

Answer 35

Punishment-obedience orientation Children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important as it is a means to avoid punishment

Question 36

Name and describe Kohlberg's 2nd stage of moral reasoning

Answer 36

Instrumental relativist orientation Rules are followed because they benefit the individual, hence they are obeyed because one receives rewards

Question 37

Name and describe Kohlberg's 3rd stage of moral reasoning

Answer 37

Good-boy-nice-girl orientation Children are focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being nice, and on consideration of how choices influence relationships

Question 38

Name and describe Kohlberg's 4th stage of moral reasoning

Answer 38

Law and order orientation People begin to consider society as a whole when making judgements. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following rules, doing one's duty, and respecting authority

Question 39

Name and describe Kohlberg's 5th stage of moral reasoning

Answer 39

Social contract orientation The laws of society are seen an instrument for ensuring respect of people's right. A law may be unfair and need to be changed to ensure justice.

Question 40

Name and describe Kohlberg's 6th stage of moral reasoning

Answer 40

Universal ethical principle orientation The morality of an action is judged according to universal ethical principles. Hence, laws that violate such principles are disobeyed. Judgement is according to one's individual conscience