The Big Six 6 Industrial Organizational

Question 1

Subjective Criterion Measures are Categorized as Absolute or Relative
Absolute Techniques (Critical Incident Technique, Forced-Choice Rating Scale, BARS)

Answer 1

Absolute techniques are methods of subjective performance assessment that indicate a ratee’s performance in absolute terms (i.e., not in terms of the performance of other employees).

The critical incident technique involves using a checklist of critical incidents (descriptions of successful and unsuccessful job behaviors) to rate each employee.

Each item in a forced-choice rating scale consists of two to four alternatives that are considered to be about equal in terms of desirability, and the rater selects the alternative that best or least describes the ratee.

BARS is a graphic rating scale that requires the rater to choose the one behavior for each dimension of job performance that best describes the employee

Question 2

Adverse Impact
(Selection Test or Other Employment Procedure)

Answer 2

As defined in the Uniform Guidelines, a selection test or other employment procedure discriminates against members of a legally protected group – i.e., has an adverse impact – when use of that procedure results in a substantially different selection, placement, or promotion rate for members of that group. The 80% (Four-Fifths) Rule is often used to determine if a procedure has an adverse impact

Question 3

Adverse Impact
(80% Four-Fifths Rule, Explained)

Answer 3

When using this rule, the hiring rate for the majority group is multiplied by 80% to determine the minimum hiring rate for the minority group. As an example, if use of a selection test results in a 50% hiring rate for African Americans and a 90% rate for Whites, the test would have an adverse impact for African Americans because 90% times 80% is 72%, which is greater than the hiring rate for African Americans.

Question 4

Americans with Disabilities ACT (ADA)

Answer 4

The ADA requires companies with 15 or more employees to avoid using procedures that discriminate against people with physical or mental disabilities. It also requires that, when a disabled person is able to perform the essential functions of a job, an employer must consider the person qualified and make “reasonable accommodations” that help the person perform the job, as long as the accommodations do not result in undue hardship for the employer.

Question 5

BIG 5 PERSONALITY TRAITS (OCEAN)

Answer 5

Factor analyses have identified five basic personality traits: OCEAN:
O= Openness, C= Conscientiousness, E=Extraversion, A= Agreeableness, N=Neuroticism.
Of these, Conscientiousness has been found to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs, job settings, and criterion measures

Question 6

Brainstorming

Answer 6

Brainstorming is a method of generating creative ideas that requires individuals or group members to freely suggest any idea or thought without criticism, evaluation, or censorship. Research suggests that individuals brainstorming alone do better than the same number brainstorming together.

Question 7

Centralized And Decentralized Networks

Answer 7

Centralized communication networks are best for simple tasks; while decentralized communication networks are better for complex tasks and are associated with greater overall satisfaction.

Question 8

Comparable Worth

Answer 8

Comparable worth is also known as pay equity and refers to the principle that jobs that require the same education, experience, skills, and other qualifications should pay the same wage/salary regardless of the employee’s age, gender, race/ethnicity, etc.and regardless of the content of the job in question.

Question 9

Compressed Workweek

Answer 9

The compressed workweek is an alternative work schedule that involves decreasing the number of work days by increasing the number of hours worked each day. It is associated with better supervisor ratings of employee performance, employee overall job satisfaction, and employee satisfaction with the work schedule, with the effects being strongest for employee attitudes.

Question 10

Consideration And Initiating Structure

Answer 10

The Ohio State University studies found that the behavior of leaders can be described in terms of two independent dimensions – consideration (person–centered style) and initiating structure (task–oriented style).

Question 11

Contingency Theory (Fiedler)

Answer 11

Fiedler’s contingency theory proposes that a leader’s effectiveness is related to an interaction between the leader’s style and the nature (favorableness) of the situation. Low LPC leaders (leaders who describe their least preferred coworker in negative terms) are most effective in very unfavorable or very favorable situations; while high LPC leaders (leaders who describe their least preferred coworker in positive terms) are better in moderately favorable situations.

Question 12

Criterion Contamination

Answer 12

Criterion contamination occurs when a criterion measure assesses factors other than those it was designed to measure. For example, contamination is occurring when a rater’s knowledge of a ratee’s performance on a predictor affects how the rater rates the ratee on the criterion. It can artificially inflate the criterion–related validity coefficient.

Question 13

Dawis And Lofquist’s Theory Of Work Adjustment

Answer 13

The theory of work adjustment describes satisfaction, tenure, and other job outcomes as the result of the correspondence between the worker and his/her work environment on two dimensions – satisfaction and satisfactoriness: A worker’s satisfaction with the job depends on the degree to which the characteristics of the job correspond to his or her needs and values, while the worker’s satisfactoriness depends on the extent to which the worker’s skills correspond to the skill demands of the job.

Question 14

Demand–Control Model (Karasek)

Answer 14

Karasek’s demand–control model predicts that job demand and job control are the primary contributors to job stress. Jobs associated with the highest levels of stress are characterized by a combination of high job demand and low job control and include machine–paced jobs and service jobs.

Question 15

Differential Validity And Unfairness

Answer 15

Differential validity exists when the validity coefficient of a predictor is significantly different for one subgroup than for another subgroup (e.g., lower for African American job applicants than for White applicants). Unfairness occurs when members of the minority group consistently score lower on a predictor but perform approximately the same on the criterion as members of the majority group. Differential validity and unfairness are potential causes of adverse impact.

Question 16

Downsizing/Survivor Syndrome

Answer 16

Downsizing occurs when an organization attempts to reduce its costs by reducing the size of the work force and/or by eliminating entire divisions or businesses. Workers who are not downsized” may exhibit survivor syndrome, which is characterized by depression, anxiety, guilt, stress-related illnesses, and decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment

Question 17

Equity Theory

Answer 17

Equity theory proposes that an employee’s motivation is related to the employee’s comparison of his/her input/outcome ratio to the input/outcome ratios of others performing the same or similar jobs. A perception of inequity leads to attempts to restore equity, with the perception of underpayment inequity (the belief that one is putting more into the job than one is getting from it) leading to more adverse outcomes than overpayment inequity does (the belief that one is putting less into the job than one is getting from it).

Question 18

Expectancy (VIE) Theory
(Porter & Lawler, 1968; Vroom, 1964)

Answer 18

According to expectancy theory an employee will work hard if he or she (a) believes that high effort will lead to successful task performance (high expectancy), (b) believes that successful performance will lead to rewards (high instrumentality), and (c) views the rewards as desirable (positive valence).

In other words, an employee’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

Although expectancy theory has been found useful for predicting job satisfaction, occupational choice, and job effort, its predictions are limited because workers sometimes have insufficient information or behave in irrational ways.

Question 19

Flextime

Answer 19

Flextime is an alternative work schedule that allows workers to choose the times they will begin and end work. It is associated with increased employee productivity, overall job satisfaction, and satisfaction with the work schedule and decreased absenteeism.

Question 20

Force Field Analysis (Lewin)

Answer 20

According to Lewin’s force field analysis model of planned change, organizational change involves three stages – unfreezing, changing, and refreezing.

Question 21

Formative And Summative Evaluation

Answer 21

Formative evaluations are conducted while a training program is being developed, and their results are used to make necessary modifications to the program. A summative evaluation is conducted after a program has been implemented in order to assess its outcomes.

Question 22

Four Levels Of Criteria (Kirkpatrick)

Answer 22

Kirkpatrick identified four levels of criteria for evaluating the effects of a training program – reaction, learning, behavioral, and results.

Question 23

Frame–of–Reference Training

Answer 23

Frame-of-reference training is a type of rater training that emphasizes the multidimensional nature of job performance and focuses on developing a common understanding (frame of reference) among raters and the ability to distinguish between good and poor work-related behaviors on each dimension. It is useful for limiting rater biases.

Question 24

Gender Differences In Leadership

Answer 24

Eagly and Johnson’s (1990) meta–analysis of the research found that male and female leaders do not consistently differ in terms of consideration or initiating structure. However, female leaders are more likely than male leaders to rely on a democratic (participative) decision–making style.

Question 25

Goal–Setting Theory

Answer 25

Goal–setting theory proposes that employees will be more motivated to achieve goals when they have explicitly accepted those goals and are committed to them. It also proposes that assigning specific, moderately difficult goals and providing employees with feedback about their progress toward achieving goals increases productivity.

Question 26

Group Norms/Idiosyncrasy Credits

Answer 26

Group norms are the standard rules of conduct that maintain uniformity of behavior among group members. Idiosyncrasy credits are positive sentiments within a group toward a member that allow that member to occasionally deviate from group norms. A person accumulates idiosyncrasy credits when he/she has a history of conforming to norms, has contributed in some special way to the group, or has served as the group leader.

Question 27

Group Polarization

Answer 27

Group polarization is the tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions (either more conservative or more risky) than individual members would have made alone.

Question 28

Groupthink

Answer 28

Groupthink occurs when the desire of group members for unanimity and cohesiveness overrides their ability to realistically appraise or determine alternative courses of action. It can be alleviated when the group leader encourages dissent, has someone play devil's advocate, and refrains from stating his/her decision or solution too quickly.

Question 29

Hawthorne Effect

Answer 29

The Hawthorne effect refers to an improvement in job performance resulting from participation in a research study (i.e., due to the novelty of the situation, increased attention, etc.). The Hawthorne effect has also been used to generally describe an alteration in behavior due to being observed, but its origins are in reference to phenomena identified during research studies conducted in Hawthorne, Illinois.

Question 30

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Theory of both Satisfaction & Motivation)

Answer 30

Herzberg (1966) derived two basic needs: * Lower-level needs have little effect on job satisfaction and motivation but produce dissatisfaction when they are unfulfilled. Factors that satisfy lower-level needs are called hygiene (job context) factors and include pay, benefits, co-worker relationships, supervision, job security, and physical work conditions. * Higher-level needs increase job satisfaction and motivation when they are fulfilled but do not cause dissatisfaction when they are unfulfilled. Factors that satisfy higher-level needs are referred to as motivator (job content) factors and include opportunities for responsibility, advancement, recognition, and achievement.

Question 31

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: Implication for Organizations

Answer 31

An implication of Herzberg’s theory for organizations is that providing employees with adequate hygiene factors will not increase their motivation but will only keep them from becoming dissatisfied. In contrast, providing workers with adequate motivator factors will ensure that they are both motivated and satisfied. Herzberg’s theory has not been fully supported by the research. While motivators appear to be more potent than hygiene factors in producing motivation and satisfaction, there is evidence that both types of factors affect satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Herzberg’s theory has also been criticized as being “method-bound” since supportive results are often obtained only when a particular research methodology is used.

Question 32

Holland (Riasec, Differentiation)

Answer 32

Holland’s career theory emphasizes the importance of a good personality/work environment match and distinguishes between six personality and environment types (“RIASEC”) – realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. A personality-environment match is most accurate as a predictor of job outcomes when the individual exhibits a high degree of differentiation – i.e., has clear interests as evidenced by a high score on one of Holland’s six types and low scores on all others.

Question 33

Identical Elements

Answer 33

Providing identical elements – i.e., ensuring that training and performance environments are similar in terms of materials, conditions, etc. – maximizes transfer of training.

Question 34

Incremental Validity (section ratio, baseline rate)

Answer 34

Incremental validity refers to the increase in decision–making accuracy resulting from the use of a new predictor. It is maximized when the predictor's validity coefficient is high, the selection ratio is low, and the base rate is moderate. (The selection ratio is the ratio of number of jobs to job applicants; the base rate is the proportion of successful decisions without the new predictor.)

Question 35

Internal and External Change Agents

Answer 35

A change agent is a person who is responsible for guiding a change effort. An internal change agent is a member of the organization, is already familiar with the company's culture, norms, and power structure, and has a personal interest in the change effort. An external change agent (consultant) is often able to see the situation more objectively, to bring in a new perspective, and to be better received by the members of the organization because of his/her impartiality.

Question 36

Job Analysis Versus Job Evaluation

Answer 36

A job analysis is a systematic process of determining how a job differs from other jobs in terms of required responsibilities, activities, and skills. It is often the first step in the development of a predictor or criterion and is used for other purposes including identifying training needs and determining the causes of accidents. Job analysis must not be confused with job evaluation, which may begin with a job analysis but is conducted for the purpose of setting wages and salaries.

Question 37

Job Burnout

Answer 37

Job burnout is caused by accumulated stress associated with overwork. Its primary symptoms are a feeling of low personal accomplishment, depersonalization, and emotional exhaustion. An early sign of burnout is a sudden increase in work effort without an increase in productivity.

Question 38

Job Enlargement (a type of Job Redesign)

Answer 38

Job enrichment involves increasing a job’s vertical job loading by giving an employee more higher-level tasks, while job enlargement entails increasing the job’s horizontal loading by increasing the number and variety of tasks. Although job enlargement can reduce boredom, it does not usually have a substantial impact on satisfaction and motivation.

Question 39

Job Enrichment ( a type of Job Redesign)

Answer 39

Job enrichment as a way to increase worker motivation. Job enrichment involves combining several jobs into a larger job so that the employee performs a meaningful unit of work and is given greater responsibility, freedom, autonomy, and control. Some of the earliest applications of job enrichment were to typist and janitorial positions. Research on the outcomes of job enrichment has produced mixed results, but the studies suggest that its strongest impact is on job satisfaction.

Question 40

Job Enrichment And Job Enlargement (General Description)

Answer 40

Job enrichment is a method of job redesign that is based on Herzberg's two–factor theory and involves making a job more challenging and rewarding in order to increase job motivation and satisfaction. It must not be confused with job enlargement, which involves increasing the number and variety of tasks included in a job without increasing the worker's autonomy, responsibility, etc.

Question 41

Job Satisfaction (Disposition, Age, Pay, Turnover)

Answer 41

High levels of satisfaction are associated with certain worker and job characteristics; e.g., older employees, higher–level employees, and employees whose jobs allow them to use their skills and abilities tend to be most satisfied. In addition, twin studies suggest that there is a genetic component to job satisfaction. The relationship between pay and satisfaction is complex and seems to be related more to the perception that one is being paid fairly than to the actual amount of pay. In terms of job outcomes, the strongest relationship is between satisfaction and turnover (r = –.40).

Question 42

Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory

Answer 42

Krumboltz's social learning theory focuses on career decision–making and proposes that a person's decisions are influenced by four factors – i.e., genetic endowment and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approach skills.

Question 43

Levels of Organizational Culture (Schein)

Answer 43

According to Schein, organizational culture can be described in terms of three basic levels – artifacts, espoused values and beliefs, and basic underlying assumptions.

Question 44

Mediation And Arbitration

Answer 44

Mediation and arbitration are methods of alternative dispute resolution that involve the use of a neutral third–party. However, a mediator cannot dictate an agreement between disputants but, instead, helps clarify the issues, facilitates communication, and offers alternatives and a recommended solution. In contrast, an arbitrator has more authority than a mediator and controls both the process and outcome of conflict resolution.

Question 45

Methods of Training (Job Rotation, Behavioral Modeling, Vestibule Training)

Answer 45

Training in organizations can be on–the–job or off–the–job. Job rotation is an example of the former; behavioral modeling and vestibule training are examples of the latter. Vestibule training takes place in a simulated work environment and is useful when on–the–job training would be too dangerous or disruptive.

Question 46

Models of Individual Decision–Making (Simon)

Answer 46

According to the rational–economic model, decision makers attempt to maximize benefits by systematically searching for the best decision or solution. In contrast, the bounded rationality (administrative) model proposes that rational decision–making is limited by internal and external constraints so that decision makers often satisfice rather than optimize (i.e., they consider decisions or solutions until a fairly good one is encountered and then stop searching due to limited time and resources).

Question 47

Multiple Regression And Multiple Cutoff

Answer 47

Multiple regression and multiple cutoff are methods for using multiple predictor scores. Multiple regression is a compensatory method, while multiple cutoff is non-compensatory.

Question 48

National Culture (Hofstede)

Answer 48

According to Hofstede, the culture of nations can be described in terms of five dimensions – power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long–term orientation.

Question 49

Need For Achievement (McClelland)

Answer 49

McClelland's research using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) revealed that three basic needs underlie work motivation – need for affiliation, need for power, and need for achievement. Employees with high need for achievement (nACH) usually choose tasks of moderate difficulty and risk, apparently because success on these tasks depends more on effort than on uncontrollable factors. They also prefer frequent, concrete feedback, and, although their motivation does not depend on money, they view monetary rewards as a source of feedback and recognition.

Question 50

Need Hierarchy Theory (Maslow)

Answer 50

Maslow's need hierarchy theory proposes that people have five basic needs that are arranged in a hierarchical order such that a need higher in the hierarchy doesn't serve as a source of motivation until all lower needs have been fulfilled. These needs, in order, are physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self–actualization. The research has not been very supportive of Maslow's theory.

Question 51

Need Theory (McClelland 1965) Need for Achievement (nACH

Answer 51

Of the three needs, need for achievement (nACH) has been investigated the most. A consistent finding is that employees with high nACH usually choose tasks of moderate difficulty and risk, apparently because success on these tasks depends more on effort than on uncontrollable factors. These employees also prefer frequent, concrete feedback, and, although their motivation does not depend on money, they view monetary rewards as a source of feedback and recognition. Moreover, because these employees prefer to assume personal responsibility rather than delegate work, they are likely to make good salespeople and entrepreneurs but not good manager

Question 52

Need Theory McClelland (1965) used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to identify needs that underlie job motivation. Results of his research suggested that basic needs are culturally determined and that three needs often act as motivators in work settings:

Answer 52

* The need for achievement refers to the need to surpass standards of excellence and to advance and grow. Individuals with a high need for achievement are goal-and task-oriented. * The need for power refers to the need to control or influence others. McClelland distinguished between socialized power (which is used to benefit others) and personalized power (which is used to benefit oneself) and proposed that effective leaders have a high need for socialized power. * The need for affiliation refers to the need to establish warm and close relationships with other people. Individuals with a high need for affiliation work best in teams and in jobs that require them to relate well with others.

Question 53

Needs Assessment

Answer 53

Needs assessment is also known as needs analysis and is a systematic process of identifying job performance requirements and employee performance deficits for the purpose of identifying training needs and the content of training programs. It includes organizational, task (job), person, and demographic analyses.

Question 54

Normative (Decision–Making) Model

Answer 54

The Vroom-Yetton-Jago normative model of leadership distinguishes between 11 situational factors and five decision-making strategies that vary in terms of degree of employee participation in the decision-making process. It provides a decision tree to help leaders select the optimal strategy for their situation.

Question 55

Organizational Commitment

Answer 55

Organizational commitment refers to the strength of an employee's identification with the organization. Although commitment seems to have minimal effects on productivity, a high degree of affective commitment is related to higher levels of motivation and satisfaction, lower rates of absenteeism and turnover, and a greater willingness to make sacrifices for the company.

Question 56

Organizational Justice

Answer 56

Organizational justice refers to workers' evaluations of organizational policies and procedures that are based on their perceived fairness. Three types of organizational justice are distinguished – procedural, distributive, and interactional.

Question 57

Overlearning

Answer 57

Overlearning refers to practicing or studying beyond the point of mastery and is associated with enhanced recall and performance under stress.

Question 58

Path–Goal Theory

Answer 58

Path–goal theory is based on the assumption that an effective leader is one who can help identify a path for subordinates that allows them to fulfill personal goals through the achievement of group and organizational goals. It proposes that the best leadership style (directive, supportive, participative, or achievement–oriented) depends on certain characteristics of the worker and the work.

Question 59

Personnel Assessments

Answer 59

Personnel assessments are a type of organizational assessment that collects individual data such as accomplishment records, personality tests, and work samples.

Question 60

Person–Machine Fit

Answer 60

A distinguishing characteristic of the human factors psychology is its reliance on general systems theory, which is manifested in its emphasis on the person–machine fit (also known as human–machine fit). From this perspective, performance is the result of an interaction between people and machines (or any other non–human element in the work environment), and any failure in performance is due to a person–machine mismatch.

Question 61

Person–Organization Fit

Answer 61

Person–organization (P–O) fit refers to the degree to which a person's values and beliefs match those of the organization's culture. A good fit is associated with a number of benefits including higher levels of job satisfaction, motivation, and organizational commitment and lower levels of stress and voluntary turnover.

Question 62

Predictors (General Mental Ability Tests, Biodata, Interviews, Work Samples, Assessment Center)

Answer 62

General mental ability tests are considered to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs and job settings. Biodata are also good predictors of performance, especially when items are empirically derived. Interviews are the most commonly used predictor in organizations but generally have low levels of reliability and validity. This is less true of structured than unstructured interviews. Work samples require the applicant to perform a task or operation actually required by the job. Assessment centers are used to evaluate and train applicants and current employees at the management or administrative level and incorporate a variety of techniques (e.g., interviews, objective tests, and situational tests).

Question 63

Process Consultation

Answer 63

Process consultation is an organizational development intervention in which a consultant helps members of the organization perceive, understand, and identify ways of improving the processes that are undermining their interactions and the organization's effectiveness.

Question 64

Quality Circles

Answer 64

A quality circle consists of a small voluntary group of employees who work together on a particular job and meet regularly to discuss job–related problems and solutions. Representatives of the quality circle then present their solutions to management.

Question 65

Rate Biases: Leniency/Strictness Bias

Answer 65

Leniency and strictness biases occur when a rater tends to avoid the middle range of a rating scale and, instead, rates all employees as either high (leniency) or low (strictness) on all dimensions of job performance.

Question 66

Rater Biases: Subjective measures of job performance (especially absolute techniques) are susceptible to a number of rater biases that limit their accuracy:

Answer 66

Rater biases are contaminating factors in the rating process that are related to the way that the rater assigns ratings. Common rater biases are: Central Tendency Bias, Leniency/Strictness Bias Halo Bias

Question 67

Rater Biases: Central Tendency Bias

Answer 67

Central tendency bias refers to a rater’s consistent use of only the middle range of the rating scale.

Question 68

Rater Biases: Halo Bias

Answer 68

The halo bias (error) occurs when a rater’s evaluation of an employee on one dimension of job performance affects his/her evaluation of that employee on other unrelated dimensions or when the rater’s general impression of an employee influences how the rater rates the employee on all dimensions of job performance. A halo effect can be either “positive” or “negative.”

Question 69

Rater Biases The best way to improve rating accuracy and methods to reduce rater biases

Answer 69

Overall, the best way to improve rating accuracy is to provide raters with adequate training, especially training that focuses on identifying and distinguishing between different levels of performance rather than on avoiding rater biases. Frame-of-reference (FOR) training, for example, provides raters with a common understanding of the multidimensional nature of job performance and of what constitutes effective and ineffective performance on each dimension (Woehr & Huffcutt, 1994). Rater biases can also be reduced by having raters rate specific behaviors rather than global behaviors or traits. Behaviors can be defined, for instance, in terms of critical incidents, which are descriptions of specific job behaviors that lead to either successful or unsuccessful job performance. “Gives suggestions to subordinates on how they can improve their performance” and “publicly insults subordinates who make mistakes” are examples of critical incidents. Critical incidents are incorporated into several subjective measures, including the critical incident technique and BARS.

Question 70

Realistic Job Preview

Answer 70

A realistic job preview is a method of providing accurate and complete information about the job and the organization to job applicants. Its primary goal is to reduce turnover by reducing disillusionment caused by unrealistic expectations about the job.

Question 71

Subjective Criterion Measures are Categorized as Absolute or Relative Relative Rating Techniques (Paired Comparison, Forced Distribution)

Answer 71

Relative (comparative) rating techniques are Subjective Measures of job performance that compare an employee’s performance to that of other employees. When using the Paired-Comparison technique, the rater compares each ratee with every other ratee in pairs on one or more dimensions of job performance. When using the Forced-Distribution technique, the rater assigns ratees to a limited number of categories based on a predefined normal distribution on one or more dimensions of job performance.

Question 72

Scientific Management

Answer 72

As described by Taylor, scientific management involves (a) scientifically analyzing jobs into their component parts and then standardizing those parts; (b) scientifically selecting, training, and placing workers in jobs for which they are mentally and physically suited; (c) fostering cooperation between supervisors and workers to minimize deviation from scientific methods of work; and (d) having managers and workers assume responsibility for their own share of their work.

Question 73

Self-Assessments

Answer 73

Self-assessments are a type of organizational assessment utilized when organizational development is the goal.

Question 74

Self–Managed Work Teams

Answer 74

Self–managed work teams are autonomous work groups whose members are trained in the skills needed to effectively perform the group task. Their function is to make hiring, budget, and other decisions that were previously made by managers.

Question 75

Situational Leadership

Answer 75

Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership model proposes that the best leadership style depends on the job maturity of the workers, which is a function of ability and willingness to assume responsibility. It distinguishes between four leader styles – telling, selling, participating, and delegating.

Question 76

Social-Cognitive Theory (SCT) Bandura’s social-cognitive theory (1986, 1997) emphasizes the self-regulation of behavior and proposes that it involves four processes:

Answer 76

* Goal-Setting: The individual establishes personal goals that represent a desired behavioral state, with the nature of these goals being influenced by the individual’s past experiences and self-efficacy beliefs. * Self-Observation: After setting goals, the individual monitors his/her goal-related behaviors. * Self-Evaluation: The individual uses information obtained during self-observation to compare current behaviors to behavioral goals. * Self-Reaction: Self-evaluation results in both positive and negative reactions. A positive self-reaction occurs when current behaviors are consistent with behavioral goals and leads to satisfaction, increased self-efficacy, and the setting of higher standards and goals in the future. In contrast, a negative self-reaction occurs when current behaviors fall short of behavioral goals and causes dissatisfaction and motivates the individual to increase his/her effort, alter performance strategies, modify goals, or abandon the activity. In this situation, the individual’s choice of action is based on several factors including his/her self-efficacy beliefs and attributions for the discrepancy.

Question 77

Social Facilitation and Inhibition

Answer 77

Social Facilitation refers to the increase in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others; it is most likely to occur when the task is simple or well–learned. Social inhibition refers to the decrease in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others; it is most likely to occur when the task is new or complex.

Question 78

Social Loafing

Answer 78

Social loafing is the tendency of an individual to exert less effort when acting as a member of a team than when working alone. It can be alleviated by ensuring that the individual's contribution is identified and rewarded.

Question 79

Stages of Group Development According to Tuckman and Jensen (1977)

Answer 79

* During the forming stage members become acquainted and attempt to establish “ground rules.”The storming stage is characterized by conflict as group members resist the control of the group leader(s). * The norming stage begins when group members accept the group, establish ground rules and individual roles within the group, develop close relationships with each other, and begin to work together to achieve group goals. * During the performing stage, group members have accepted each other’s strengths and weaknesses, are clear about their own roles, and are focused on “getting the job done.” * Finally, in the adjourning stage, the group disbands because the group’s goals have been met or because group members have left.

Question 80

Super (Self Concept, Career Maturity, Life-Career Rainbow)

Answer 80

According to Super's life–space, life–span theory, the selection of a job involves finding a job that matches one's self–concept (which reflects one's values, personality, interests, etc.). The theory also emphasizes the importance of career maturity, which is the ability to cope with the developmental tasks of one's life stage. The Life–Career Rainbow relates an individual's major life roles to five life stages and is useful for helping a career counselee recognize the impact of current and future roles and stages on career planning.

Question 81

Taylor–Russell Tables

Answer 81

The Taylor–Russell tables are used to estimate a predictor's incremental validity when the criterion–related validity coefficient, selection ratio, and base rate are known.

Question 82

Theory X and Theory Y

Answer 82

According to McGregor, Theory X managers believe that employees dislike work and avoid it whenever possible and, as a result, must be directed and controlled. In contrast, Theory Y managers view work as being as natural as play" and assume that employees are capable of self–control and self–direction."

Question 83

Tiedeman and O'Hara's Career Decision–Making Model

Answer 83

Tiedeman and O'Hara's career decision–making model describes vocational identity development as an ongoing process that is tied to ego identity development and distinguishes between two phases of decision–making: anticipation and implementation/adjustment.

Question 84

Total Quality Management (TQM)

Answer 84

TQM is a management theory that emphasizes customer service, employee involvement (especially teamwork), and continuous improvement in goods and services.

Question 85

Transformational and Transactional Leaders

Answer 85

Transformational leaders are characterized by their ability to recognize the need for change, create a vision for change (including using “framing” to describe the need for change in a way that is meaningful to followers), and effectively execute the change. They are contrasted with transactional leaders who tend to maintain the status quo and rely on rewards and punishments to motivate behavior.

Question 86

Two–Factor Theory (Herzberg)

Answer 86

Herzberg's two–factor theory is a theory of both motivation and satisfaction that places satisfaction and dissatisfaction on two separate continua. Motivator factors (increased autonomy, responsibility, control, etc.) contribute to satisfaction and motivation when they are present; while hygiene factors (pay, pleasant working conditions) contribute to dissatisfaction when they are absent.

Question 87

Types of Group Tasks

Answer 87

Tasks performed by groups can be classified in terms of five types – additive, compensatory, disjunctive, conjunctive, and discretionary.

Question 88

Utility Analysis

Answer 88

Utility analysis is used in organizations to evaluate the effectiveness of training, selection, and other interventions; it uses mathematical equations to obtain an estimate of institutional gain or loss in financial terms

Question 89

Work Shifts

Answer 89

Of the three fixed shifts (day, swing, and graveyard), the graveyard shift is associated with the most problems; however, these problems may be alleviated if the worker voluntarily chooses the graveyard shift. The rotating shift is associated with even more problems than the graveyard shift (e.g., higher accident rates, lower productivity).

Question 90

Work–Family Conflict

Answer 90

Work–family conflict refers to conflicts caused by incompatible work and family role demands. It is associated with a number of negative consequences including reduced job, marital, and life satisfaction, job burnout, job turnover, decreased job productivity, and mental and physical health problems.

Question 91

Yerkes–Dodson Law

Answer 91

The Yerkes–Dodson Law predicts that the highest levels of performance are associated with moderate levels of arousal (motivation) – i.e., the relationship between arousal and performance takes on the shape of an inverted–U.