The Big Six 4 Physiological Psychology

Question 1

ADOPTION METHOD

Answer 1

ADOPTION METHOD: The adoption method is a quasi-experimental research design that relies on adopted children as participants to isolate the effects of genetic versus environmental variables.

Question 2

Amygdala and Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

Answer 2

AMYGDALA AND KLUVER-BUCY SYNDROME: The amygdala is a substructure of the limbic system and is involved in the control of emotional activities, including the mediation of defensive-aggressive behaviors and the attachment of emotions to memories. Bilateral lesions in the amygdala and temporal lobes of primates produces Kluver-Bucy Syndrome, which is characterized by reduced fear and aggression, increased docility and compulsive oral exploratory behaviors, altered dietary habits, hypersexuality, and “psychic blindness” (an inability to recognize the significance or meaning of events or objects).

Question 3

Anticholinergic Effects

Answer 3

ANTICHOLINERGIC EFFECTS: Anticholinergic effects are caused by several drugs including the antipsychotics and tricyclic antidepressants. They include dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), urinary retention, constipation, memory impairment, and confusion.

Question 4

Aphasia (Broca’s, Wernicke’s, and Conduction)

Answer 4

Aphasia is impaired production and/or comprehension of language. (1) Broca’s aphasia is caused by damage to Broca’s area and involves difficulty producing written or spoken language with little or no comprehension issues; it often includes anomia and impaired repetition. (2) Wernicke’s aphasia is caused by damage to Wernicke’s area and involves an inability to comprehend written or spoken language along with the production of rapid, seemingly effortless speech that is lacking in content; it may include anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition. (3) Conduction aphasia is caused by damage to the arcuate fasciculus and does not significantly affect comprehension but does result in anomia, paraphasia, and impaired repetition.

Question 5

Atypical Antipsychotics (Clozapine)

Answer 5

ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS (CLOZAPINE): Clozapine and other atypical (newer) antipsychotic drugs affect receptors for several neurotransmitters including dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate. These drugs are effective for both positive and negative symptoms of Schizophrenia and are less likely to produce tardive dyskinesia than the traditional antipsychotics. However, they can produce agranulocytosis and other blood dyscrasias as well as neuroleptic malignant syndrome.

Question 6

Autonomic Nervous System (Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches

Answer 6

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the peripheral nervous system and is involved in the control of visceral functions (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sweating). It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches: The sympathetic branch is involved in the mediation of flight or fight (emergency) reactions. Activation of the sympathetic branch produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls visceral functions (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sweating). It consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. The sympathetic branch mediates flight or fight (emergency) reactions; activation produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes. The parasympathetic branch regulates energy conservation and relaxation. Activation is associated with slowing of heart rate, lowered blood pressure, contraction of pupils, reduction of sweat gland output, and increased activity of the digestive system.

Question 7

Basal Ganglia

Answer 7

The basal ganglia are subcortical structures (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra) that are involved in planning, organizing, and coordinating voluntary movements. Basal ganglia pathology has been linked to Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Tourette’s Disorder, OCD, and ADHD.

Question 8

Beta–Blockers (Propranolol)

Answer 8

Propranolol and other beta–blockers block or diminish the cardiovascular excitatory response to the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. They are used to treat cardiovascular disorders, glaucoma, and migraine headache and are also useful for reducing the physical symptoms of anxiety. Common side effects of propranolol include bradycardia, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, decreased sexual ability, and trouble sleeping.

Question 9

Brain Lateralization/Split–Brain Patients

Answer 9

BRAIN LATERALIZATION/SPLIT-BRAIN PATIENTS: Although the left and right hemispheres are both involved to some degree in most functions, they tend to specialize. The left (dominant) hemisphere dominates in verbal activities (spontaneous speaking and writing, word recognition, memory for words and numbers); analytical, logical thought; and positive emotional states. The right (non-dominant) hemisphere dominates in visual-spatial activities such as facial recognition, spatial interpretation and memory for shapes and in negative emotions. The specialization of the two hemispheres is referred to as brain lateralization and was initially studied in split-brain patients, whose corpus callosums had been severed to control severe epilepsy.

Question 10

Cerebellum And Ataxia

Answer 10

The cerebellum is a large structure on the dorsal aspect of the hindbrain. It is involved in the extrapyramidal control of motor activities (e.g., coordination, balance, posture). Damage can result in ataxia, which is characterized by slurred speech, severe tremors, and a loss of balance.

Question 11

Cerebral Ventricles/Hydrocephalus

Answer 11

The ventricles are the four cavities of the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid. Blockage of the ventricles and a resulting build–up of fluid can cause hydrocephalus.

Question 12

Cerebrovascular Accident

Answer 12

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) is also referred to as cerebral stroke and refers to brain damage that occurs when a blood clot or other obstruction or hemorrhage disrupts the flow of blood to the brain. Common symptoms include contralateral hemiplegia, hemianesthesia involving the face, arm, and leg, and contralateral visual field loss.

In addition, dominant (left) hemisphere damage may produce aphasia and ideomotor apraxia; while non-dominant (right) hemisphere damage may cause contralateral neglect and dressing apraxia.

Neuropsychiatric symptoms are common after a stroke. Depression occurs most often, with depressive symptoms affecting up to 40% of patients (e.g., Robinson, 1997). For some patients, depressive symptoms occur immediately following the stroke; but, for others, they do not occur until several months later. Other neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with stroke include anxiety, mania, apathy, pathological crying or laughter, psychosis, and dementia.

Question 13

Contralateral Representation

Answer 13

For most sensory and motor functions, the cortex exhibits contralateral representation, which means that the left hemisphere controls the functions of the right side of the body and vice–versa.

Question 14

Corpus Callosum

Answer 14

The right and left hemispheres are connected by several bundles of fibers, the largest of which is the corpus callosum. If the corpus callosum is severed, the two hemispheres operate essentially as separate, independent brains.

Question 15

Cushing’s Syndrome

Answer 15

Endogenous Cushing’s syndrome (CS), a rare endocrine disorder characterized by cortisol hypersecretion, is associated with psychiatric and neurocognitive disorders.

Major depression, mania, anxiety, and neurocognitive impairment are the most important clinical abnormalities. Moreover, patients most often complain of impairment in quality of life, interference with family life, social, and work performance.
Surprisingly, after hypercortisolism resolution, despite the improvement of the overall prevalence of psychiatric and neurocognitive disorders, the brain volume loss at least partially persists and it should be noted that some patients may still display depression, anxiety, panic disorders, and neurocognitive impairment.

This brief review aimed at describing the prevalence of psychiatric and neurocognitive disorders and their characterization both during the active and remission phases of CS. The last section of this review is dedicated to quality of life, impaired during active CS and only partially resolved after resolution of hypercortisolism.

Question 16

Depth Perception/Retinal Disparity

Answer 16

Depth perception depends on a combination of binocular and monocular cues. Retinal disparity is a binocular cue and refers to the fact that our two eyes see objects in the world from two different views; and the closer an object, the greater the disparity of the two images.

Question 17

Dopamine Hypothesis

Answer 17

According to the dopamine hypothesis, Schizophrenia is due to overactivity at dopamine receptors either as the result of oversensivity of the receptors or excessive dopamine levels.

Question 18

Effects Of Psychoactive Drugs

Answer 18

Terms used to describe the effects of the psychoactive drugs include the following: (1) Agonists produce effects similar to those produced by a neurotransmitter. (2) Inverse agonists produce an effect opposite the effect produced by a neurotransmitter or an agonist. (3) Partial agonists produce effects that are similar to (but less than) the effects produced by a neurotransmitter or an agonist. (4) Antagonists produce no activity in the cell on their own but, instead, reduce or block the effects of a neurotransmitter or agonist.

Question 19

Emotion (Areas Of The Brain)

Answer 19

Areas of the brain that have been implicated in the regulation of emotion include the amygdala (which plays a role in the perception and expression of anger, fear, sadness, happiness, and other emotions and attaches emotion to memories), the hypothalamus (which is involved in the translation of emotions into physical responses), and the cerebral cortex. With regard to the latter, the left hemisphere governs happiness and other positive emotions, while the right hemisphere mediates sadness, fear, and other negative emotions.

Question 20

Frontal Lobe, Broca’s Area, Prefrontal Cortex

Answer 20

The frontal lobe occupies the major portion of the cortex and includes the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, Broca’s area, and prefrontal cortex. It is involved in initiative, planning ability, abstract thinking, and other executive functions; personality and mood; and motor functions. Damage to Broca’s area produces Broca’s (expressive) aphasia. Damage to the prefrontal cortex produces personality changes and deficits in higher–level cognitive abilities.

Question 21

Gate–Control Theory of Pain

Answer 21

According to gate–control theory, there are mechanisms in the spinal cord that mediate (block) the perception of pain.

Question 22

General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 22

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME: According to Selye, the human response to stress is mediated by adrenal-pituitary secretions (e.g., cortisol) and involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. The model predicts that prolonged stress can result in illness or death.

Question 23

Genetic Screening Methodologies

Answer 23

GENETIC SCREENING METHODOLOGIES: Genetic screening methodologies are utilized to detect various abnormalities in chromosome structure, protein function, and DNA sequence. Typically there are three types of genetic testing: cytogenetic, biochemical, and molecular.

Question 24

Hippocampus

Answer 24

The hippocampus is a limbic system structure that is important for spatial and explicit memory and the consolidation of declarative memories.

Question 25

Huntington’s Disease

Answer 25

Huntington’s disease is an inherited degenerative disease that is transmitted by a single autosomal dominant gene and involves emotional, cognitive, and motor symptoms. For many patients, emotional and cognitive symptoms appear first and include depression, apathy, anxiety, antisocial tendencies, and forgetfulness. Early motor symptoms include fidgeting, and clumsiness, which are followed by facial grimaces and “piano–playing” movements of the fingers. Huntington’s disease is believed to be due to a loss of GABA–secreting neurons and glutamate excitotoxicity in the basal ganglia, especially in the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus.

Question 26

Hypertension

Answer 26

There are two types of hypertension. Primary (essential) hypertension occurs when there is no known physiological cause. Secondary hypertension occurs when elevated blood pressure is related to a known disease. Primary hypertension accounts for about 85 to 90% of all cases; untreated, it can lead to cardiovascular disease. It is a major cause of heart failure, kidney failure, and stroke. The prevalence of hypertension is related to age, race, and gender. Older adults have higher rates than younger adults, and African Americans have higher rates than Whites. Rates are generally higher for men; however, for older adults and African Americans, rates are higher for women.

Question 27

Hyper– And Hypothyroidism

Answer 27

Hyperthyroidism is caused by hypersecretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland and is characterized by a speeded–up metabolism, elevated body temperature, accelerated heart rate, increased appetite with weight loss, nervousness, and insomnia. Hypothyroidism is caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine and involves a slowed metabolism, slowed heart rate, lethargy, lowered body temperature, impaired concentration and memory, and depression.

Question 28

Hypoglycemia

Answer 28

Hypoglycemia (low blood glucose) is caused by excessive secretion of insulin by the pancreas and is characterized by hunger, dizziness, headaches, blurred vision, palpitations, anxiety, depression, and confusion.

Question 29

Hypothalamus And Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Answer 29

The hypothalamus consists of a cluster of nuclei that control the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands, mediate basic drives, and regulate emotional expression. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is located in the hypothalamus, is involved in regulation of the body’s circadian rhythms.

Question 30

Learning and Memory (Areas of the Brain)

Answer 30

Areas of the brain involved in learning and memory include: (1) The temporal lobes which encode, store, and retrieve of long–term declarative memories. (2) The hippocampus consolidates of long–term declarative memories (transferring information from short–term to long–term memory). (3) The amygdala plays a key role in fear conditioning, learning about rewards and punishments, and adding emotional significance to memories. (4) The prefrontal cortex is associated with short–term memory, episodic memory, and prospective memory. (5) The thalamus is involved in processing information and transferring it to the neocortex.

Question 31

Learning And Memory (Neural Mechanisms)

Answer 31

Neural mechanisms that are believed to mediate long–term memory include long–term potentiation and protein/RNA synthesis. (1) Long–term potentiation (LTP) is a physiological process involving the modification of nerve synapses, especially at glutamate receptors in the hippocampus. (2) Inhibiting the synthesis of protein or RNA at the time of learning prevents the formation of long–term memories.

Question 32

MAOIs And Hypertensive Crisis

Answer 32

The MAOIs are antidepressants that work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which is involved in deactivating dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. The most dangerous side effect is hypertensive crisis, which can occur when an MAOI is taken in conjunction with barbiturates, amphetamines, antihistamines, or certain other drugs, or with foods containing the amino acid tyramine (e.g., aged cheeses and meats, beer, red wine, chicken liver, avocados, bananas, fava beans). Symptoms of a hypertensive crisis include severe headache, stiff neck, rapid heart rate, nausea, vomiting, sweating, and sensitivity to light.

Question 33

Medulla

Answer 33

The medulla is a hindbrain structure that controls the flow of information between the spinal cord and brain and regulates a number of vital functions including breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

Question 34

Menopause/Hormone Replacement Therapy

Answer 34

The decreased estrogen levels that accompany menopause produce a variety of emotional and physical symptoms including hot flashes, fatigue, mood swings, nausea, vaginal dryness, and loss of bone mass. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) alters estrogen levels only or both estrogen and progesterone levels and is effective for eliminating hot flashes, mood swings, and vaginal dryness and reduces the risk for bone loss.

Question 35

Methylphenidate

Answer 35

Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate) is a psychostimulant drug used to treat ADHD in children and adults. Common side effects include decreased appetite, insomnia, dysphoria, and growth suppression.

Question 36

Migraine Headache

Answer 36

A migraine headache is a recurrent vascular headache characterized by severe throbbing pain, usually on one side of the head. Triggers include certain foods, alcohol, bright lights, and relaxation following physical or psychological stress. A migraine may be preceded by an aura (classic migraine) or gastrointestinal or other symptoms (common migraine).

Question 37

Mood Stabilizing Drugs \n(Lithium, Anticonvulsant Drugs)

Answer 37

Mood stabilizing drugs are used to alleviate mania and mood swings in Bipolar Disorder and include lithium and anticonvulsants (e.g., carbamazepine). Lithium is usually the drug–treatment–of–choice for classic Bipolar Disorder, while an anticonvulsant drug may be more effective for patients who experience rapid mood swings or who have dysphoric mania.

Question 38

Multiple Sclerosis

Answer 38

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a progressive disease of the nervous system that involves a degeneration of the myelin that surrounds nerve fibers in the central nervous system. Common initial symptoms are optic neuritis, motor impairments, sensory abnormalities, and fatigue. Additional symptoms that arise as the disease progresses include tremors, speech problems, mood symptoms, and cognitive impairment.

Question 39

Naltrexone

Answer 39

Naltrexone (ReVia, Vivitrol) is an opioid antagonist that blocks the craving for and reinforcing effects of alcohol and is used to treatment Alcohol Abuse and Dependence. Side effects include abdominal cramping, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, nervousness, headache, and joint and muscle pain.

Question 40

Narcotic–Analgesics

Answer 40

The drugs classified as narcotic–analgesics (opioids) have both sedative and analgesic properties. Medically, the narcotic–analgesics are used for the same reasons they were used centuries ago – i.e., as analgesics, treatments for diarrhea, and cough suppressants. Chronic use of a narcotic–analgesic results in tolerance and psychological and physical dependence. Withdrawal symptoms resemble those associated with a bad case of the flu.

Question 41

Neuroimaging Techniques

Answer 41

Neuroimaging techniques make it possible to study both the structure and function of the living brain. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are structural techniques. Positron–emission tomography (PET), single proton emission computed tomography (SPECT), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provide information on the functional activities of the brain.

Question 42

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome

Answer 42

Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a rare, but potentially fatal side effect of the antipsychotic drugs. It involves a rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms including muscle rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness. To avoid a potentially fatal outcome, the drug must be stopped as soon as symptoms of NMS develop.

Question 43

Neuron \n(Action Potential, All–or–None Principle)

Answer 43

The neuron is a specialized nerve cell involved in mental processes and behavior. Messages within a neuron are transmitted from a neuron’s dendrites to the end of its axon through an electrical process called conduction. With sufficient stimulation from other cells, a cell becomes depolarized (the interior of the cell becomes less negative), which triggers an action potential – i.e., an electrical impulse that travels quickly through the cell. The all–or–none principle predicts that an action potential will always be of the same magnitude regardless of the amount of stimulation received by a neuron as long as the minimal level of stimulation (the threshold) has been reached.

Question 44

Neurotransmitters \n(Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Serotonin, GABA)

Answer 44

Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that are released from axon terminals, diffuse across synapses, and excite or inhibits receptor sites on postsynaptic nerve cells. (1) Acetylcholine mediates neuromuscular transmission, parasympathetic arousal, and memory (e.g., memory loss in Alzheimer’s dementia). (2) Dopamine is involved in inhibitory motor regulation and motivational/emotional functions. Insufficient dopamine in the basal ganglia is believed to underlie Parkinson’s disease; excessive activity at dopamine receptors has been linked to Schizophrenia and Tourette’s Disorder. (3) Serotonin ordinarily inhibits behavior and is involved in the regulation of mood, hunger, arousal, sleep, temperature, and pain and in the Bipolar and Depressive Disorders, Schizophrenia, and OCD. (4) GABA is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter and is believed to be involved in anxiety, sleep, and seizures. Low levels of GABA in the motor region are associated with Huntington’s disease.

Question 45

Occipital Lobe And Visual Agnosia/Prosopagnosia

Answer 45

The occipital lobe contains the visual cortex. Damage to the occipital lobe can result in visual agnosia (inability to recognize familiar objects), color agnosia, word blindness, and/or scotomas (blind spots). Lesions at the junction of the occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes can produce prosopagnosia (inability to recognize familiar faces).

Question 46

Papez’s Circuit

Answer 46

Papez’s circuit was proposed as a brain mechanism (circuit) that mediates the experience and expression of emotion. It includes the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, anterior nuclei of the thalamus, and cingulate gyrus.

Question 47

Parietal Lobe And Apraxia/Anosognosia/Gerstmann’s Syndrome

Answer 47

The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory cortex. Depending on its location, damage to the parietal lobe can cause apraxia (inability to perform skilled motor movements in the absence of impaired motor functioning), anosognosia (inability to recognize one’s own neurological symptoms or other disorder), or Gerstmann’s syndrome, which involves a combination of finger agnosia, right–left confusion, agraphia, and acalculia.

Question 48

Postconcussional Syndrome

Answer 48

When using the DSM–5, a person with postconcussional syndrome would receive a diagnosis of Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Traumatic Brain Injury when the following criteria are met: (a) The person’s symptoms meet the criteria for Major or Mild Neurocognitive Disorder. (b) There is evidence of a traumatic brain injury with at least one of the following – loss of consciousness, posttraumatic amnesia, disorientation and confusion, and/or neurological signs (e.g., seizures, visual field cuts, hemiparesis). (c) The neurocognitive disorder occurs immediately after the traumatic brain injury or immediately after recovery of consciousness and continues past the acute post–injury period.

Question 49

Psychophysical Laws \n(Weber’s Law, Fechner’s Law, \nStevens’s Power Law)

Answer 49

The psychophysical laws attempt to predict the relationship between perception and sensation. (1) Weber’s Law states that the just noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is a constant proportion of the initial stimulus intensity. (2) Fechner’s law states that physical stimulus changes are logarithmically related to their psychological sensations. (3) Stevens’s Power Law proposes that the magnitude of a sensation is equal to the physical magnitude of the stimulus producing the sensation raised to a certain power (exponent) which varies, depending on the specific sensation being measured.

Question 50

Reticular Activating System

Answer 50

The reticular activating system (RAS) is a network of nerve fibers involved in wakefulness, arousal, and consciousness.

Question 51

Secondary Sex Characteristics/Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Gonadal Axis

Answer 51

At puberty, an increase in gonadal hormones influences the emergence of secondary sex characteristics and the development of the reproductive system. Although the mechanisms that trigger the development of the secondary sex characteristics are not well understood, it occurs when the hypothalamus secretes chemicals that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland, which then releases the gonadotropic hormones that stimulate testosterone and sperm production by the testes or ovulation and estrogen production by the ovaries. This system is referred to as the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis.

Question 52

Sedative–Hypnotics (Benzodiazepines)

Answer 52

The sedative–hypnotics: barbiturates, anxiolytics, and alcohol, are generalized CNS depressants with dose dependent effects. Low doses reduce arousal and motor activity; moderate doses induce sedation and sleep; and high doses produce anesthesia, coma, and death. Benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed anxiolytic and are used for anxiety, sleep disturbances, seizures, cerebral palsy, and alcohol withdrawal. Side effects include drowsiness, ataxia, slurred speech, and other signs of CNS depression; abrupt cessation can cause rebound hyperexcitability. They can produce paradoxical agitation, impaired sexual functioning, confusion, and sleep disturbances.

Question 53

Seizures (Tonic–Clonic, Absence, Partial)

Answer 53

Generalized (tonic–clonic and absence) seizures are bilaterally symmetrical without a focal onset. Tonic–clonic (grand mal) seizures include a tonic stage wherein the muscles contract and the body stiffens; a clonic stage with rhythmic shaking of the limbs; and postseizure depression or confusion with amnesia for the ictal event. Absence (petit mal) seizures are brief attacks involving a loss of consciousness without prominent motor symptoms. Partial seizures begin in one side of the brain and affect one side of the body, at least initially but can spread into generalized seizures.

Question 54

Sexual Dimorphism

Answer 54

Sexual dimorphism refers to sex–related differences in physical appearance, and the research has confirmed that the human brain is sexually dimorphic. Studies using structural brain imaging techniques have found sex–related differences in the size of specific regions of the brain including the corpus callosum, hippocampus, and SCN.

Question 55

Sleep (Stages, Effects of Age)

Answer 55

There are 5 sleep stages based on EEG (electroencephalogram) patterns. During stage 1, alpha waves are replaced by theta waves. Stage 2 consists primarily of theta waves that are interrupted by bursts of sleep spindles and K complexes. In stage 3, large, slow delta waves appear. In stage 4, “deep sleep” consists of delta waves. The 5th sleep stage is characterized by rapid eye movements (REM) affiliated with dreams. Sleep patterns vary with age. Newborns begin with REM sleep which becomes NREM sleep. This pattern begins to reverse by about 3 months. Total sleep time, stage 4 sleep, and REM sleep all decrease from childhood to adulthood.

Question 56

Somatic Nervous System

Answer 56

The somatic nervous system (SNS) consists of sensory nerves that carry information from the body’s sense receptors to the CNS and motor nerves that carry information from the CNS to the skeletal muscles. The SNS governs activities that are ordinarily considered voluntary.

Question 57

Spinal Cord (Quardriplegia and Paraplegia)

Answer 57

The spinal cord carries information between the brain and the peripheral nervous system, coordinates activities of the left and right sides of the body, and controls simple reflexes that do not involve the brain. It consists of 31 segments, which are divided into five groups. From the top of the spinal cord to the bottom, these are: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal. Damage at the cervical level ordinarily results in quadriplegia (loss of sensory and voluntary motor functioning in the arms and legs), while damage at the thoracic level causes paraplegia (loss of functioning in the legs).

Question 58

SSRIS (Fluoxetine)

Answer 58

The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s) are antidepressant drugs that exert their effects by blocking the reuptake of serotonin at nerve synapses. Side effects include gastrointestinal disturbances, sexual dysfunction, insomnia, anxiety, headache, and anorexia. In comparison to the TCAs, the SSRIs are less cardiotoxic, safer in overdose, and less likely to produce cognitive impairments. Fluoxetine (Prozac) is one of the most widely–prescribed antidepressants but its use is surrounded by controversy due to evidence linking it to an increased risk for suicide.

Question 59

Synesthesia

Answer 59

Synesthesia (“joining senses”) is a rare condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality triggers a sensation in another sensory modality. For example, a person with synesthesia might hear a color or taste a shape.

Question 60

Tardive Dyskinesia

Answer 60

Tardive dyskinesia is a potentially irreversible extrapyramidal side effect associated with long–term use of traditional antipsychotic drugs. Symptoms include rhythmical, stereotyped movements of the muscles of the face, limbs, and trunk (similar to Huntington’s chorea). In some cases, symptoms are alleviated by a GABA agonist or by gradual withdrawal of the drug.

Question 61

Temporal Lobe And Wernicke’s Area

Answer 61

The temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area. Damage can result in auditory agnosia, cortical deafness, impairments in long–term memory, and/or Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia.

Question 62

Thalamus And Wernicke–Korsakoff Syndrome

Answer 62

The thalamus is a “relay station” for all of the senses except olfaction and is also involved in language and memory. Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome is due to a thiamine deficiency that causes atrophy of neurons in certain areas of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus and is usually the result of chronic alcoholism. It begins with Wernicke’s encephalopathy, which is characterized by mental confusion, abnormal eye movements, and ataxia; and is then followed by Korsakoff’s syndrome, which involves severe anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation.

Question 63

Theories Of Color Vision \n(Trichromatic And Opponent Process)

Answer 63

There are two theories of color vision. According to the trichromatic theory, there are three types of color receptors that are each receptive to a different primary color (red, blue, or green). All other colors are produced by variations in the activity of these three receptors. The opponent–process theory postulates three bipolar receptors: red–green, yellow–blue, and white–black. According to this theory, some cells are excited by red and inhibited by green, and so on; and the overall pattern of stimulation of these cells produces the various colors that we perceive.

Question 64

Theories of Emotion \n(James–Lange, Cannon–Bard, \nCognitive Appraisal)

Answer 64

Theories of emotion differ in terms of their emphasis on the role of peripheral and central factors. James–Lange theory focuses on peripheral factors, proposing that emotions represent perceptions of bodily reactions to sensory stimuli. Cannon–Bard theory focuses on the brain mechanisms that mediate emotion, proposing that emotional and bodily reactions to stimuli occur simultaneously due to thalamic stimulation of the cortex and the peripheral nervous system. Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory says that emotions are universal but differences in how emotion–arousing events are appraised. It distinguishes between three types of cognitive appraisal: primary, secondary, and re–appraisal.

Question 65

Traditional Antipsychotics

Answer 65

The traditional antipsychotic drugs (e.g., phenothiazines) are used for the management of Schizophrenia and other psychoses. They are most effective for positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, agitation, thought disorders). Side effects include anticholinergic, extrapyramidal effects, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. These drugs exert their beneficial effects primarily by blocking dopamine receptors, and their effectiveness provides support for the dopamine hypothesis which attributes schizophrenia to overactivity at dopamine receptors.

Question 66

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)/\nAnterograde Amnesia, Retrograde Amnesia

Answer 66

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)/Anterograde Amnesia, Retrograde Amnesia: TBI refers to a closed– or open–head injury to the brain that is caused by an external force and involves temporary or permanent impairments in cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and/or physical functioning. A closed–head injury usually causes an alteration or loss of consciousness followed by anterograde and retrograde amnesia. Anterograde amnesia is referred to as post–traumatic amnesia, and its duration is a good predictor of recovery. Retrograde amnesia affects recent memories more than remote memories and, when long–term memories begin to return, the more remote memories return first.

Question 67

Tricyclics (Imipramine, Clomipramine)

Answer 67

The tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are believed to work by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine, and/or serotonin. They are most effective for alleviating somatic, vegetative symptoms. Side effects include anticholinergic effects, confusion, drowsiness, weight gain, and cardiovascular symptoms. Imipramine has also been found useful for treating enuresis, while clomipramine is an effective treatment for Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Bulimia Nervosa, and OCD.

Question 68

Type A Behavior Pattern

Answer 68

People exhibiting the Type A behavior pattern are highly competitive and achievement–oriented, have a sense of time urgency, and tend to be hostile, easily irritated, and impatient. A number of studies have confirmed that, of the Type A characteristics, cynical or antagonistic hostility is most strongly associated with health problems, especially coronary heart disease in males.

Question 69

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Answer 69

WERNICKE’S APHASIA Wernicke’s aphasia results from lesions in the dominant (left) temporal lobe. People with Wernicke’s aphasia have no language comprehension. They cannot follow verbal commands or repeat phrases. They speak fluently, but what they’re saying is complete nonsense (think of the phrase “garbage in, garbage out”). Interestingly, they are unaware of their problem (anosognosia) and expect others to be able to understand them. Wernicke’s is considered a receptive or sensory aphasia.

People with Wernicke’s typically don’t recognize that they are speaking gibberish or they attribute their speech problem to some other cause, such as a long-standing learning disorder.

Question 70

Parkinson’s Disease

Answer 70

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive degenerative disease characterized by tremor, muscular rigidity, akathisia, akinesia, and speech difficulties; and it may eventually include dementia. Symptoms are temporarily relieved by L–dopa, a dopamine agonist. Parkinson’s disease is believed to be due to degeneration of dopamine–containing cells, especially in the substantia nigra.