The Big Six 5 Learning Theory

Question 1

Classical Conditioning

Answer 1

In classical conditioning, a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus alone eventually elicits the response that is naturally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s original studies, the meat powder was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response. A tone was the conditioned stimulus; and, as a result of its pairing with meat powder, the tone eventually elicited a conditioned response of salivation.

Question 2

Classical Extinction And Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 2

Classical extinction is the elimination of a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Often, an extinguished conditioned response shows spontaneous recovery – i.e., it recurs in response to the CS following extinction without additional pairing of the CS and US.

Question 3

Cognitive Therapy/Beck
(Schemas, Automatic Thoughts,
Collaborative Empiricism, Socratic Dialogue)

Answer 3

Beck’s cognitive therapy (CT) attributes depression and other psychopathology to certain cognitive phenomena including dysfunctional cognitive schemas (underlying cognitive structures), automatic thoughts (surface level cognitions), and cognitive distortions (systematic errors in information processing). CT is referred to as collaborative empiricism” because of its emphasis on a collaborative relationship between therapist and client. Cognitive therapists often use Socratic dialogue (questioning) to help clients reach logical conclusions about problems and their consequences.”

Question 4

Differential Reinforcement

Answer 4

Differential reinforcement (e.g., DRA, DRO, and DRI) is an operant technique that combines positive reinforcement and extinction. During a specified period of time, the individual is reinforced when he/she engages in behaviors other than the target behavior.

Question 5

EMDR
(Eye Movement Desensitization And Reprocessing)

Answer 5

EMDR was originally developed as an intervention for PTSD but has since been applied to other disorders. It combines rapid lateral eye movements with exposure and other techniques drawn from cognitive, behavioral, and psychodynamic approaches. Some research suggests that its effectiveness is not due to rapid eye movements but, instead, to exposure to the feared event (i.e., to extinction).

Question 6

Escape and Avoidance Conditioning

Answer 6

Escape conditioning is an application of negative reinforcement in which the target behavior is an escape behavior – i.e., the organism engages in the behavior in order to escape the negative reinforcer. Avoidance conditioning combines classical conditioning with negative reinforcement. With avoidance conditioning, a cue (positive discriminative stimulus) signals that the negative reinforcer is about to be applied so that the organism can avoid the negative reinforcer by performing the target behavior in the presence of the cue.

Question 7

Functional Behavioral Assessment

Answer 7

A functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is used to clarify the characteristics of a target behavior and determine its antecedents and consequences in order to identify an alternative behavior that serves the same functions and function–based interventions that can be used to substitute the alternative behavior for the target behavior.

Question 8

Higher–Order Conditioning

Answer 8

Higher–order conditioning occurs when a previously established CS serves as a US to establish a conditioned response for a new conditioned (neutral) stimulus – i.e., the new neutral stimulus is paired with the established CS so that, eventually, the new neutral stimulus produces a conditioned response.

Question 9

In Vivo Aversion Therapy/Covert Sensitization

Answer 9

In vivo aversion therapy utilizes counterconditioning to reduce the attractiveness of a stimulus or behavior by repeatedly pairing that stimulus or behavior in real life” (in vivo) with a stimulus that produces an undesirable or unpleasant response. Pairing alcohol consumption with electric shock to reduce alcohol use is an example of in vivo aversive counterconditioning. In this situation,In this situation, the alcohol is the CS, the electric shock is the US, and fear or discomfort is the UR/CR. Covert sensitization is similar to in vivo aversion therapy except that the CS and US are presented in imagination.

Question 10

In Vivo Exposure with Response Prevention/Flooding

Answer 10

In vivo exposure with response prevention is a classical extinction technique that involves exposing the individual in real life” (in vivo) to anxiety–arousing stimuli (the CS) without the original US while preventing the individual from making his/her usual avoidance response. Flooding is a type of exposure that involves exposing the individual to the most anxiety–arousing stimuli for an extended period.”

Question 11

Information Processing Model
(Sensory Memory, STM, LTM)

Answer 11

The information processing (multi–store) model describes memory as consisting of three separate, but interacting, stores: sensory memory (sensory register), short–term memory (STM), and long–term memory (LTM). Sensory memory seems to be capable of storing a great deal of information, but the information is retained for no more than a few seconds. Information in sensory memory is transferred to STM when it becomes the focus of attention. STM holds a limited amount of information, and, without rehearsal, information begins to fade within 30 seconds. Information is likely to be transferred from STM to LTM when it is encoded, especially when encoding involves elaborative rehearsal (relating new information to existing information). The capacity of LTM seems to be unlimited.

Question 12

Insight Learning/Kohler

Answer 12

Insight learning (the aha” experience) refers to the apparent sudden understanding of the relationship between elements in a problem–solving situation. Insight learning was originally described by Kohler as a result of his research with chimpanzees.”

Question 13

Interference Theory
(Retroactive and Proactive Interference)

Answer 13

Interference theory proposes that the inability to learn or recall information is due to the disruptive effects of previously or subsequently learned information. Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of previously learned information, while proactive interference occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning or recall of subsequent information.

Question 14

Latent Learning/Tolman

Answer 14

Tolman’s model of latent learning proposes that learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in performance improvement. Tolman’s research showed that rats formed cognitive maps” of mazes without being reinforced for doing so.

Question 15

Law Of Effect/Thorndike

Answer 15

Thorndike’s law of effect proposes that, when behaviors are followed by “satisfying consequences”, they are more likely to increase or occur again. This theory was originally derived from studies in which hungry cats were placed in “puzzle boxes” and had to perform a particular behavior in order to escape from the box and obtain food.

Question 16

Learned Helplessness Model/Reformulated Version

Answer 16

The learned helplessness model was originally derived from the observation that animals who were subjected to an uncontrollable negative event (inescapable electric shock) subsequently did not try to escape that event when they were able to do so. The reformulated version of the model added attributions to the original theory and proposed that some forms of depression are due to the tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. A subsequent revision acknowledged the role of attributions but proposed that they’re important only to the extent that they contribute to a sense of hopelessness.

Question 17

MEMORY: Levels of Processing Model

Answer 17

The levels-of-processing model (Craik & Tulving, 1975) is an alternative to the information-processing model. It proposes that differences in memory are due to differences in depth of processing rather than to separate memory stores and distinguishes between three levels of processing: structural, phonemic, and semantic. For example, when trying to memorize a word, you can focus either on its structural or physical properties (Is the word in capital letters?); on its phonemic or sound properties (What does this word rhyme with?); or on its meaning. The latter represents the semantic level, which is the deepest level of processing and produces the greatest amount of recall.

Question 18

Matching Law

Answer 18

When using concurrent schedules of reinforcement, there are two or more simultaneous and independent schedules of reinforcement, each for a different response. According to the matching law, in this situation, the organism will match its relative frequency of responding to the relative frequency of reinforcement for each response.

Question 19

Mnemonic Devices
(Method Of Loci, Keyword Method,
Acronym, Acrostic)

Answer 19

Mnemonic devices are formal strategies for improving memory. The method of loci is a mnemonic that employs imagery in which items to be remembered are mentally placed, one by one, in pre–memorized (familiar) locations; and recall involves mentally walking through” the location and retrieving the items. The keyword method is another imagery technique and is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked. Acronyms and acrostics are verbal mnemonics that are both useful for memorizing a list of words or phrases. An acronym is a word that’s formed using the first letter of each item

Question 20

Multi–Component Model/Badeley And Hitch

Answer 20

According to the multi–component model, working memory consists of a central executive and three subsystems – the phonological loop, the visuo–spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer. The central executive is the primary component of working memory and serves as an attentional control system.” It’s responsible for directing attention to relevant information

Question 21

Observational Learning
(Guided Participation, Self–Efficacy)

Answer 21

Bandura’s observational learning theory predicts that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else (a model) perform those behaviors and that observational learning is cognitively mediated and involves four processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation. Research on observational learning found that participant modeling, which combines modeling with guided participation, is the most effective type of observational learning, especially for treating phobic reactions. Bandura’s theory predicts that self–efficacy beliefs (beliefs about one’s ability to perform a behavior or achieve a goal) are a primary source of motivation.

Question 22

Operant Conditioning/Skinner
(Reinforcement and Punishment)

Answer 22

According to Skinner, most complex behaviors are voluntarily emitted or not emitted as the result of the way they operate” on the environment (i.e.

Question 23

Operant Extinction and Extinction Bursts

Answer 23

Operant extinction refers to the elimination of a previously reinforced response through the consistent withholding of reinforcement following that response. Operant extinction is usually associated with a temporary increase in the response (an extinction burst”).”

Question 24

Overcorrection

Answer 24

Overcorrection is an operant technique that is used to eliminate an undesirable behavior. It involves having the individual correct the consequences of his/her behavior (restitution) and/or practice corrective behaviors (positive practice). It may also require constant supervision and/or physical guidance.

Question 25

Positive Reinforcement (Thinning, Satiation)

Answer 25

Positive reinforcement occurs when the application of a stimulus following a behavior increases the occurrence of the behavior. The establishment of a new behavior is usually most rapid when positive reinforcement is applied on a continuous schedule, while maintenance of the behavior (resistance to extinction) is maximized when the behavior is reinforced on an intermittent schedule. Consequently, the best procedure is to begin with a continuous schedule of reinforcement and to change to an intermittent schedule once the behavior is well–established. The process of reducing the proportion of reinforcements is referred to as thinning. Up to a point, the greater the amount of positive reinforcement, the greater its effectiveness. However, past that point, satiation may occur, which means that the reinforcer has lost its reinforcing value.

Question 26

Premack Principle

Answer 26

The Premack Principle is an application of positive reinforcement that involves using a high–frequency behavior as a positive reinforcer for a low–frequency behavior.

Question 27

Procedural And Declarative Memory

Answer 27

Long–term memory is conceptualized as consisting of procedural and declarative components: Procedural memory stores information about how to do things (learning how”). Declarative memory mediates the acquisition of facts and other information (“learning that or what”) and is subdivided into semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory includes memories for general knowledge that is independent of any context and is responsible for the storage of facts

Question 28

Prompts/Fading

Answer 28

Prompts are verbal or physical cues that facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior, and the gradual removal of a prompt is referred to as fading. (Note that the term fading is also used to describe the procedure that is used to eliminate an inappropriate stimulus–response connection by gradually replacing the inappropriate stimulus with appropriate stimuli so that the response becomes associated with the latter.)

Question 29

Prospective Memory

Answer 29

Prospective memory is considered by some researchers to be an aspect of long–term memory and is responsible for the ability to remember to remember” (e.g.

Question 30

Punishment/Habituation

Answer 30

Punishment occurs when the application or withdrawal of a stimulus following a behavior decreases the occurrence of that behavior. A major disadvantage of punishment is that it suppresses (rather than eliminates) a behavior. Punishment is usually most effective when it is initially applied in moderation. Initially administering punishment in a weak form and then gradually increasing its intensity increases the likelihood of habituation, which occurs when a punishment loses its effectiveness.

Question 31

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)/Ellis

Answer 31

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) regards emotions and behaviors as the consequence of a chain of events – A–B–C – where A is the external event to which the individual is exposed; B is the belief the individual has about A; and C is the emotion or behavior that results from B. In other words, an emotional or behavioral response to an external event is due to beliefs about that event rather than to the event itself. According to Ellis (1985), the primary cause of neurosis is the continual repetition of certain common irrational beliefs which are the targets of therapy.

Question 32

Reciprocal Inhibition

Answer 32

Reciprocal inhibition is a form of counterconditioning developed by Wolpe to alleviate anxiety reactions by pairing a stimulus (CS) that produces anxiety with a stimulus (US) that produces relaxation or other response that is incompatible with anxiety.

Question 33

Response Cost

Answer 33

Response cost is a form of negative punishment that involves removing a reinforcer (e.g., a specific number of tokens or points) following a behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.

Question 34

Schedules of Reinforcement
(Continuous and Intermittent)

Answer 34

Continuous reinforcement follows each target response. It yields rapid response acquisition with high susceptibility to satiation and extinction. Intermittent schedules of reinforcement are: fixed intervals that provide reinforcement at predetermined time intervals in which the subject makes at least 1 response; variable intervals that provide reinforcement at varying times with a predetermined average time interval; fixed ratios that provide reinforcement after a predetermined number of responses; and variable ratios that provide reinforcement after a varying number of responses with the average number being predetermined. The variable ratio schedule yields high, stable response rates and the greatest resistance to extinction.

Question 35

Self–Control Therapy/REHM

Answer 35

Self–control therapy is a brief form of therapy that is based on the assumption that deficits in three aspects of self–control increase a person’s vulnerability to depression and make it difficult to deal effectively with depressive symptoms. The three aspects are self–monitoring, self–evaluation, and self–reinforcement.

Question 36

Self–Instructional Training

Answer 36

Self–instructional training is a cognitive–behavioral technique in which the individual learns to modify maladaptive thoughts and behaviors through the use of covert self–statements. It was originally developed as a way to help impulsive and hyperactive children slow down their behaviors and guide themselves through academic and other types of tasks.

Question 37

Serial Position Effect

Answer 37

Research on the serial position effect has found that, when people are asked to recall a list of unrelated items immediately after reading the list, the items in the beginning and end of the list are recalled much better than those in the middle. Apparently, the primacy effect” occurs because items in the beginning of the list have already been rehearsed and stored in long–term memory

Question 38

Shaping Vs. Chaining

Answer 38

Shaping and chaining are both used to establish complex voluntary behaviors. However, shaping (successive approximation training) involves teaching a new behavior through prompting and reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target behavior, while chaining involves establishing a sequence of responses (a behavior chain”). With shaping

Question 39

State Dependent Learning

Answer 39

Research on state–dependent learning has shown that recall of information tends to be better when the learner is in the same emotional state during learning and recall.

Question 40

Stimulus Control

Answer 40

In operant conditioning, stimulus control is the process by which a behavior does or does not occur due to the presence of discriminative stimuli. Positive discriminative stimuli signal that the behavior will be reinforced, while negative discriminative stimuli (S–delta stimuli) signal that the behavior will not be reinforced.

Question 41

Stimulus Discrimination And
Experimental Neurosis

Answer 41

In classical conditioning, stimulus discrimination training is used to reduce stimulus generalization by teaching the organism to respond with a CR only in the presence of the original CS. When discriminations are difficult, the organism may exhibit experimental neurosis – i.e., it may perform unusual behaviors such as restlessness, aggressiveness, or fear.

Question 42

Stimulus Generalization

Answer 42

In operant and classical conditioning, stimulus generalization refers to responding with a particular response to similar stimuli. In classical conditioning, it refers to responding to stimuli similar to the CS with the CR; in operant conditioning, it refers to responding to stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus with the target behavior.

Question 43

Stress Inoculation

Answer 43

Stress inoculation is a cognitive–behavioral technique that is used to help individuals cope with stressful and other aversive states by enhancing their coping skills. It consists of three overlapping phases: cognitive preparation (conceptualization), skills acquisition and rehearsal, and application and follow–through.

Question 44

Systematic Desensitization

Answer 44

Systematic desensitization was developed by Wolpe as an application of counterconditioning (reciprocal inhibition) for eliminating anxiety responses and involves pairing hierarchically arranged anxiety–evoking stimuli with relaxation. Research using the dismantling strategy suggests that extinction (rather than counterconditioning) is responsible for its effectiveness.

Question 45

Time–Out

Answer 45

Time–out is a form of negative punishment in which the individual is removed from all opportunities for reinforcement for a prespecified period of time following a misbehavior in order to decrease the occurrence of that behavior.

Question 46

Trace Decay Theory

Answer 46

Trace decay theory proposes that loss of memory (forgetting) is due to the gradual decay of memory traces (engrams) over time as the result of disuse.

Question 47

Yerkes–Dodson Law

Answer 47

The Yerkes–Dodson law predicts that moderate levels of arousal are associated with optimal learning and performance so that the relationship between arousal and learning takes the shape of an inverted–U.