test2 Flashcards
What is the correct order for the topics: Procedure, Discussion, References, Results, Conclusions, Title, Objective, Introduction
Title, Introduction, Objective, Procedure, Results, Discussion, Conclusions, References
Gives the context or background to the research in the form of basic information and/or theories
Introduction
What is the goal of the experiment/dissection/review?
Objectives
Outlines how the research was conducted to enable others to evaluate its credibility
Procedure
Present the results of the research; usually presented through graphs and various figures
Results
Presents and analyses the findings from the experiment; recommendations are also presented here
Discussions/Conclusion
Website, book, scientific literature used to write the report
References
What kind of receptors are found in the eyes?
Photoreceptors
What type of senses does the eye have?
Special senses
What is the modality/stimulus that activate the eyes?
Light
This sense is based on light interacting with the eyes
Vision/Sight
Focuses the light into the retina
Lens
Changes size; constricts or dilates
Pupil
Regulates the amount of light that passes through
Iris
What happens when bright light comes to your eye?
The pupil constricts to reduce the amount of light entering the eye
When your eye’s natural lens becomes cloudy. Proteins in your lens break down and clump together, causing thing to look blurry, hazy or less
Cataract
Composed of transparent, flexible tissue and is located directly behind the iris and the pupil
Lens
A procedure to remove the lens of your eye and, in most cases, replace it with an artificial lens
Cataract surgery
The eye’s clear, protective outer layer
Cornea
The white outer coating of the eye
Sclera
A surgical procedure to replace part of your cornea with corneal tissue from a donor
Cornea transplant (keratoplasty)
Contains a very high concentration of cones
Macula Lutea/Fovea
Light-sensitive cells in the retina that give detailed central vision
Cones
Where are the cones located?
In the retina
The yellow oval spot at the center of the retina that contains blood vessels and nerve fibers
Macula
Covers the front of the eye with the exception of the cornea
Conjuctiva
Thick white sphere of dense connective tissue that encloses the eye and maintains its shape
Sclera
Contributes to the tear film and protects the eye from foreign objects and infection
Conjunctiva
Lines the inside of the eyelids and provides a covering to the sclera
Conjunctiva
Highly vascularized and home to extensive lymphatic vessels
Conjunctiva
Mucous membrane that covers the front of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelids
Conjunctiva
What is the name of the disease that affects the conjunctiva?
Conjunctivitis/Pink eye
What is the common name for conjunctivitis?
Pink eye
An inflammation of the conjunctiva
Conjunctivitis
Thin membrane that covers the inside of your eyelids and the sclera
Conjunctiva
Contains tiny blood vessels and produces the mucus that lubricates your eyes. If this membrane becomes inflamed, these tiny blood vessels swell & make your eye appear red
Conjunctiva
What are the 3 layers of the eye wall?
Fibrous, Vascular, & Neural tunic
What is included in the Fibrous tunic?
Sclera & Cornea
What is included in the Vascular tunic?
Iris, Ciliary body, & Choroid
What is included in the Neural tunic?
Retina
What are the main functions of the ciliary body?
Accommodation, holding the lens in place, and producing aqueous fluid
The middle layer of tissue in the wall of the eye; found between the sclera and the retina
Choroid
Where are the photoreceptors located?
In the retina
Where are rods and cones located?
On the back of the eye ball
Do not mediate color vision; detect only light and dark and are very sensitive to low light levels
Rods
Are active at higher light levels; are capable of color vision
Cones
What type of cells are photoreceptors?
Special cells
What do photoreceptors do to light that hits the retina?
Turns them into electrical signals
How do electrical signals travel in the eye?
From the retina through the optic nerve to the brain
What does the brain do with the electrical signals it receives?
Turns the signals into the images we see
Densely saturated with cone photoreceptors
Fovea
Where the optic nerve and blood vessels leave the eyeball
Blind spot
What is the optic nerve connected to?
The brain
What does the optic nerve do?
Carries images to the brain, where they’re processed
What is the purpose of the blind spot in the eye?
It allows the brain to process and fill in missing information around the blind spot to create an image
Light enters the eye
Stimulus energy
Receptors in the eye detect and respond to light
Reception
Light is converted from electromagnetic energy to energy in the form of action potentials
Transduction
Sent to the brain via the optic nerve
Transmission
Received in the primary visual cortex; occurs in that area and throughout the brain
Interpretation
What is the order of the processes for visual sensory information?
Stimulus energy, Reception, Transduction, Transmission, & Interpretation
The adult human eye is a ___ measuring about ____ in diameter
Sphere; 2.5cm(1 in)
What type of structures protect and aid eye function?
Accessory structures
What are the accessory structures?
Eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, extrinsic eye muscles
What is another name for eyelids?
Palpebrae
Only about ____ of the eye’s anterior surface is observable
1/6
The remainder of the eye’s anterior surface is enclosed and protected by a cushion of ___ and the walls of the ____.
Fat; bony orbit
Refers to the bones that constitute the margins of the
orbits, that is, the roof, medial and lateral walls, and floor.
Bony Orbit
What margins make up the bony orbit?
Roof, medial and lateral walls, and floor
What is the main function of the extraocular eye muscles?
To control movement and eye alignment
A genetic condition caused by a difference in how one or more of the light-sensitive cells found in the retina of the eye respond to certain colors
Color blindness
These cells sense wavelengths of light, and enable the retina to distinguish between colors
Cones
Three cones with nominal red and green cone overlap
Normal color vision
Shifted cones cause overlap between red and green, reducing the number of color seen
Color blindness
What are the colors that the cones see?
Blue, green, and red
Happens when one or more of the color cone cells are
absent, not working, or detect a different color than normal
Color blindness
Occurs when all three cone cells are absent
Severe color blindness
Happens when all three cone cells are present but one cone cell does not work right; it detects a different color than normal
Mild color blindness
What is the color of the S-cone?
Blue
What is the color of the M-cone?
Green
What is the color of the L-cone?
Red
How many types of cones do most other mammals have?
2 for green and blue/ultraviolet (UV) light
What structures do human eyeballs and cow eyeballs have in common?
Sclera, cornea, lens, vitreous fluid, retina, and choroid
How many muscles are attached to the eye to allow you to look in all directions?
6
How many muscles do cows have in their eye?
4
What direction can cows look?
Up, down, left, right
What can human eyes do that cow eyes can’t?
They cannot roll their eyes
What is the difference of shape of the pupils in human and cow eyes?
Human pupils are round and cow pupils are oval
What is difference between the tapetum in the human eye and cow eye?
There is no tapetum in the human eye and there is a blue-green tapetum in the cow eye
What color tapetum is in the cow eye?
Blue-green
A second lining that helps you see better in the dark
Tapetum
A membrane located behind the retina that reflects back the light that has gone through the retinal cell layers, increasing light detection by photoreceptor cells
Tapetum lucidum
What is the function of the endocrine system?
maintaining homeostasis & producing and secreting hormones
How is the endocrine system formed?
Through the development of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
What is secreted by the endocrine system?
Hormones
A series of glands that produce and secrete hormones that the body uses for a wide range of functions
Endocrine system
What bodily functions does the endocrine system control?
Respiration, metabolism, reproduction, sensory perception, movement, sexual development, & growth
A chemical transmitter released in small amounts from glands and is transported in the bloodstream to target organs or other cells
Hormone
Chemical messengers, transferring information and instructions from one set of cells to another
Hormones
Regulate growth, development, mood, tissue function, metabolism, and sexual function
Hormones
How can hormones regulate cellular function?
Through signal transduction pathways
How do hormones bind or enter cells?
Passing through the membrane or binding to receptors
Produces melatonin which helps maintain circadian rhythm and regulate reproductive hormones
Pineal gland
A hormone primarily released by the pineal gland at night and has long been associated with control of the sleep-wake cycle
Melatonin
As a dietary supplement, it is often used for the short-term treatment of insomnia, such as from jet lag or shift work, and is typically taken orally
Melatonin
Located deep in the brain in an area called the epithalamus, where the halves of the brain join
Pineal gland
Which part of the brain is the pineal gland located?
Epithalamus
Where the two halves of the brain join
Epithalamus
Situated in the middle of the brain; sits in a groove just above the thalamus
Epithalamus
Located at the base of the brain and is attached to the hypothalamus
Pituitary
How many lobes does the pituitary gland have?
2
Which systems work together to maintain homeostasis?
Endocrine and nervous system
A collection of specialized cells located in the brain and is the primary link between the two systems
Hypothalamus
Produces chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions of the pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
An important pea-sized organ
Pituitary gland
What is the pituitary gland also known as?
Master gland
Through secretion of its hormones, it controls metabolism, growth, sexual maturation, reproduction, blood pressure and many other vital physical functions and processes
Pituitary gland
Essential for the growth and development of bones, muscles, and other organs
Growth hormone
Enhances protein synthesis, decreases the use of glucose, and promotes fat destruction
Growth hormone
How tall is the tallest man?
8’11”
Who is the tallest man
Robert Wadlow
Tumor on the pituitary; overproduction of growth hormone
Pituitary giant
A gonadotropic hormone
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Promotes the development of multiple follicles in the ovaries, each containing an egg
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Stimulates the growth ovarian follicles in the female and the production of sperm in the male
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Manufactured in the seminiferous tubules within the testicle
Sperm
Stimulates the development and growth of the mammary glands and milk production during pregnancy
Prolactin (PRL)
Regulates skin pigmentation and promotes the deposit of melanine in the skin after exposure to sunlight
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Protects against cellular damage from UV light exposure
Melanin
Stimulates the uterus to contract during labor, delivery, and parturition
Oxytocin
A synthetic version of this hormone, used to induce labor, is called Pitocin. It also stimulates the mammary glands to release milk
Oxytocin
Where is oxytocin secreted from?
Posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
Where is GH secreted from?
Anterior pituitary gland
Where is FSH secreted from?
Anterior pituitary gland
Where is PRL secreted from?
Anterior pituitary gland
Where is MSH secreted from?
Anterior pituitary gland
How can the pituitary gland affect vision?
If tumors grow on the pituitary gland it can cause pressure to build on the optic nerve which affects vision
Located in the chest between the lungs; makes white blood cells (T lymphocytes) which are part of the immune system and help fight infection
Thymus gland
Part of the lymphatic system; ductless gland and secrete thymosin
Thymus gland
Why is the secretion of thymosin necessary?
Is necessary for the Thymus’ normal production of T cells for the immune system
Which systems are the thymus apart of?
Lymphatic and Endocrine System
An organ system in vertebrates that is part of the immune system, and complementary to the circulatory system
Lymphatic system (lymphoid system)
A large gland composed of both exocrine and endocrine functions
Pancreas
Release substances through openings onto your body’s surfaces
Exocrine Glands
What are endocrine functions?
Hormone releasing
What are exocrine functions?
enzyme secreting
What 4 hormones do the endocrine secrete?
Insulin, glucagon, gastrin, & somatostatin
Decreases glucose levels and glucagon
Insulin
Increases glucose levels
Glucagon
Consist of islet of langerhans
Endocrine
Rich in digestive enzymes produced by acinar cells
Exocrine
What are the digestive enzymes in the exocrine?
Amylase and lipase
Secretes digestive enzymes, ions, and water into the duodenum of the gastrointestinal tract
Exocrine gland
Consists of the islets of Langerhans, secretes hormones into the bloodstream
Endocrine gland
Also known as suprarenal glands, are small, triangular-shaped glands located on top of both kidneys
Adrenal glands
Epinephrine
Adrenaline
What does the adrenal gland do in a dangerous situations?
Release adrenaline, speed up metabolism, & become more alert
Where is the female reproductive gland located?
Abdomen
What is the structure of the female reproductive gland?
Ovaries
What hormones are released in the female reproductive gland?
Estrogen & progesterone
Prepares for fertilized egg
Uterus
Development of eggs
Ovaries
What does the female reproductive gland target?
Uterus & ovaries
Where is the male reproductive gland located?
Abdomen
What is the structure of the male reproductive gland?
Testes
What hormone is released from the male reproductive gland?
Testosterone
Produces sperms, development of male secondary sex characteristics
Testes
What is the target of the male reproductive gland?
Testes
Produce estrogen hormones and progesterone
Ovaries
These hormones prepare the uterus for pregnancy, promote the development of mammary gland, play a role in sex drive, & develop secondary sex characteristics in the female
Estrogen & Progesterone
Stimulates FSH and LH release pre-ovulation
Estrogen
Essential for the growth, development, and maintenance of female sex organs
Estrogen
Inhibits FSH and LH for most of cycle
Estrogen
Produce the male sex hormone called testosterone
Testes
Male sex hormone
Testosterone
Essential for normal growth and development of the male sex organs
Testosterone
Responsible for the erection of the penis
Testosterone
Temporary endocrine gland
Placenta
During pregnancy, the ___ serves as an endocrine gland
Placenta
Provides oxygen and nutrients to a growing baby also removes waste products from the baby’s blood
Placenta
Attaches to the wall of the uterus and the baby’s umbilical cord arises from it
Placenta
Produce chorionic gonadotropin hormone, estrogen, and progesterone
Placenta
A chemical created by trophoblast tissue, tissue typically found in early embryos
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
A gland that makes substances such as sweat, tears, saliva, milk, & digestive juices and releases them through a duct or opening to a body surface
Exocrine glands
Sweat glands, lacrimal glands, salivary glands, mammary glands, and digestive glands in the stomach, pancreas, and intestines
Exocrine glands
Increase metabolism and regulate calcium levels
Thyroid and Parathyroid glands
Produce parathyroid hormones
Parathyroid glands
Plays a key role in the regulation of calcium levels in the blood
Parathyroid hormones
Why are precise calcium levels important in the human body?
Small changes can cause muscle and nerve problems
Located in the brain, help control the thyroid gland
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Hypothalmus
Stimulates the pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
T3
Triiodothyronine hormone
T4
Thyroxine hormone
Control the body’s metabolic rate, heat generation, neuromuscular function and heart rate
T3 & T4
A hormone that your thyroid gland makes and releases to help regulate calcium levels in your blood by decreasing it
Calcitonin
Opposes the actions of the parathyroid hormone
Calcitonin
A hormone that increases your blood calcium levels
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Referred to as antagonistic hormones as their actions are diametrically opposite
Calcitonin and PTH
Secreted when blood calcium level is extremely high
Calcitonin
Secreted when the blood calcium level is too low
PTH
Hormones that regulate the Ca++ levels in blood
Calcitonin and PTH
What is the source of T3, T4, & calcitonin?
Thyroid
What is the source of PTH?
Parathyroids
What is the target of T3 & T4?
Most tissues
What is the target of calcitonin?
Bone
What is the target of PTH?
Bone, kidneys, & intestine
Plays a vital role in metabolism and regulates the body’s metabolic processes
Thyroid gland
Influences bone and calcium
metabolism
Calcitonin
Maintains a homeostasis of calcium in the blood plasma
Calcitonin
What does an increase in blood calcium do?
Increases secretion of calcitonin
What does an decrease in blood calcium do?
Increases secretion of parathyroid hormone
An autoimmune disorder that can cause hyperthyroidism
Graves’ disease
Overactive thyroid
Hyperthyroidism
A small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck
Thyroid
Controls the way your body uses energy, so they affect nearly every organ in your body, even the way your heart beats
Thyroid hormones
Your immune system attacks your thyroid gland causing it to make more thyroid hormones than your body needs, as a result, many of your body’s functions speed up
Graves’ disease
A benign tumor originating in glandular tissue
Adenoma
Can grow in size to press upon the surrounding vital structures and leading to severe consequences
Benign growths
Generally benign or non cancerous but carry the potential to become adenocarcinomas
Adenomas
Malignant or cancerous
Adenocarcinomas
Most common type of cancer
Carcinoma
Begins in the epithelial tissue of the skin, or in the tissue that lines internal organs and may spread to other parts of the body or be confined to the primary location
Carcinoma
Which hormone stimulates sperm production?
Follicle stimulating hormone
Which gland is thought to play a role in establishing 24-hour circadian rhythms?
Pineal gland
Dehydration is detected by osmoreceptors in the ____
Hypothalamus
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released by the _____
Posterior pituitary
Decreases urine volume output and cause blood-vessel constriction
ADH
T/F: ADH helps to conserve water during dehydration
True
Stimulates ovulation
LH
Stimulates production of TSH and PRL
TRH
Stimulates secretion of anti-stress hormones
ACTH
Stimulates milk synthesis
PRL
Stimulates water retention
ADH
T/F: Hormones are chemical messengers that are transported by the bloodstream and stimulate physiological responses in cells of another tissue or organ
True
Sits on top of a kidney
Adrenal gland
Found in the pelvis
Ovaries
Attached to the small intestines
Pancreas
Found in the neck
Thyroid gland
Found in the brain
Pituitary gland
In comparison to the nervous system, the endocrine system responds _____ and its actions are ___
Slowly; long-lasting
