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test 5 Flashcards

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1
Q

endocrine system

A

hypothalamus, pineal body, pituitary, thymus, thyroid, parathyroids, heart, adrenal gland, pancreas, testis, ovaries, kidney

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2
Q

exocrine glands

A

skin surface; chemical secretions; chemicals produced by the gland

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3
Q

endocrine glands

A

blood capillaries; hormones are secreted into blood

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4
Q

hormones

A

chemical signal that is produced and released by cells or groups of cells forming the endocrine glands

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5
Q

functions of hormones

A

homeostasis; growth and development; reproduction; energy production, storage and use; regulate behavior

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6
Q

target cells and receptors

A

transmembrane; cytoplasmic

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7
Q

hormone action

A

tropic vs nontropic

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8
Q

tropic hormones

A

stimulate other endocrine glands to produce and secrete hormones

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9
Q

nontropic hormones

A

stimulate cellular growth, metabolism, and other functions

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10
Q

hormone chemical structures

A

steroids, amines, protein/poypeptide

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11
Q

negative feedback loop

A

conditions in the body change from set point-change detected-corrective mechanisms activated-conditions returned to set point-corrective mechanisms switched off

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12
Q

negative feedback example

A

neurons in hypothalamus secrete TRH, stimulate cells in anterior pituitary to secrete TSH; TSH binds to receptors on epithelial cells in thyroid gland, stimulate synthesis and secrete of thyroid hormones; blood concentration increase above certain threshold, TRH are inhibited and stop secreting TRH

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13
Q

pituitary and hypothalamus

A

hypothalamus located near pituitary gland; neurosecretory neurons; releasing hormones; inhibiting hormones

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14
Q

protein hormones released from hypothalamus

A

CRF,GRF, somatostatin, LHRH, PIH, PRH, TRH

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15
Q

anterior pituitary

A

small gland located at the base of the hypothalamus; produces 7 hormones

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16
Q

growth hormone

A

protein; stimulates hypertrophy and hyperplasia; acts primarily on bone and muscle; positive correlation between amount of hormone produced and size of individual; diurnal cycle

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17
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone

A

protein hormone; interacts with cells in the thyroid gland; stimulates production of thyroxine and triiodothyronine; T3 and T4 stimulate breakdown of glucose

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18
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone

A

ACTH; target organ-adrenal cortex; stimulates production of glycocorticoids

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19
Q

posterior pituitary

A

neuroendocrine gland; secretes oxytocin (milk “let down”, uterine contractions); antidiuretic hormone (regulates water balance)

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20
Q

thyroid gland

A

U or H shaped gland located in the neck; produces T3 and T4 and calcitonin

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21
Q

parathyroid glands

A

4 small nodules of tissue; parathyroid hormone

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22
Q

pancreas

A

dual purpose organ (digestive and endocrine systems); produce glucagon and insulin

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23
Q

glucagon

A

increases blood glucose levels; stimulates breakdown of glycogen in the liver; controlled by negative feedback mechanisms

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24
Q

insulin

A

decreases blood glucose levels; stimulates formation of glycogen in the liver and muscle cells; controlled by negative feedback mechanisms

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25
Q

adrenal glands

A

adrenal medulla, adrenalin, noradrenalin; adrenal cortex, glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids, sex steroids

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26
Q

adrenaline and noradrenalin

A

secreted in response to stress; produce the “flight or fight” response;physiologic changes include: elevated blood glucose level, increase breathing rate, heart rate, bronchiole dilation, and mental alertness

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27
Q

glucocorticoids

A

affect glucose metabolism; cortisol

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28
Q

mineralcorticoids

A

associated with electrolyte or mineral salt balance; aldosterone

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29
Q

overall

A

hormones work to maintain homeostasis; hormonal balance can be upset by disease or toxic pollutants

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30
Q

structural organization of nervous system

A

divided into: central nervous system (CNS); peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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31
Q

CNS

A

includes the brain and spinal cord

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32
Q

PNS

A

all nervous tissue of the body excluding the brain and spinal cord

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33
Q

functions of CNS and PNS

A

collecting information; processing and evaluating information; responding to information

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34
Q

sensory nervous system (input)

A

transmits info from periphery to the CNS

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35
Q

motor nervous system (output)

A

transmits information from the CNS to periphery

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36
Q

somatic sensory (voluntary)

A

touch, pain, pressur, vibration, proprioception, and special senses

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37
Q

visceral sensory (involuntary)

A

impulses from viscera and blood vessels

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38
Q

somatic motor (voluntary)

A

impulses from the CNS that cause contraction of skeletal muscles

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39
Q

autonomic motor (involuntary)

A

impulses from the CNS that regulate smooth and cardiac muscle and glands

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40
Q

neurons (nerve cells)

A

electrically excitable cells that initiate, transmit and receive nerve impulses

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41
Q

glial cells

A

non-excitable cells that support and protect the neurons; neuroglia; in both CNS and PNS; smaller than neurons and capable of mitosis; physically protect and nourish neurons; more numerous; brain tumors are more likely to be derived from these

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42
Q

neurons

A

basic structural unit of the nervous system; conduct nerve impulses from one part of the body to another; have: high metabolic rate, extreme longevity; non mitotic

43
Q

neuron structure

A

cell body, dendrites, axon

44
Q

cell body

A

contains typical organelles: nuclueus, nucleolus, mitochondria, free ribosomes and rough ER (nissl bodies)

45
Q

dendrites

A

short processes that branch from the cell body; receive nerve impulses and transmit them to the cell body

46
Q

axon

A

neurons have either one axon or no axon at all; without-anaxonic; where connects to cell body is axon hillock; transmit nerve pulses away from cell body and transmit info to other cells

47
Q

axon collaterals

A

side branches of the main axon

48
Q

telodendria

A

fine terminal extensions at the end of the axon and its collaterals

49
Q

synaptic knobs

A

expanded regions at the tip of telodendria

50
Q

sensory- afferent

A

transmit impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS

51
Q

motor- efferent

A

transmit impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands

52
Q

interneurons

A

facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons

53
Q

interneurons

A

located entirely in the CNS; receive more impulses from many other neurons; perform integrative function of processing info from the sensory neurons and determine how to act via signaling the appropriate motor neurons; approximately 99% of all neurons are interneurons

54
Q

reflex arc

A

simplest example of nervous system activity involving direct motor response to sensory input without conscious thought *sensory neuron transmit an action potential to a synapse with a motor neuron in the spinal cord resulting in action

55
Q

glial cells found in CNS

A

astrocytes; ependymal cells; microglial cells; oligodendrocytes

56
Q

astrocytes

A

most abundant; help to form blood brain barrier; regulate tissue fluid composition; form a structural network; space fillers for damaged neurons (astrocytosis) assist development of fetal neuron connections

57
Q

blood brain barrier

A

regulates what substances can enter the interstitial fluids of the brain; capillary endothelial cells and astrocyte perivascular feet contribute; results from selectivity of the tight junctions between the endothelial cells in CNS vessels and the presence of astrocytes; bacterial rarely cross; antibodies too large to cross; drugs cannot pass; viruses easily pass

58
Q

ependymal cells

A

ciliated cuboidal epithelial cells that line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord’ produce cerebral spinal fluid and form the choroid plexus

59
Q

microglial cells

A

small cells that are motile; wander through the CNS and exhibit phagocytic activity, removing cellular debris from dead or dying cells

60
Q

oligoendrocytes

A

associated with CNS axons only; wrap themselves around the axons; produce myelin sheath which is an insulator of electrical activity; one can myelinate a small portion of many axons

61
Q

satellite cells

A

a type of glial cell; flattened cells arranged arounf neuronal cell bodies in ganglia

62
Q

neurolemmocytes

A

type of glial cell; schwannc cells; PNS axons only; wrap arounf axons; produce myelin; same structure and function as oligodendrocytes; myelinate a small portion of a single axon only

63
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

chronic disease of CNS; 400,000 americans; 200 diagnosed each week; autoimmune disease, immne system attacks myelin sheath; damaged sheaths or nerve fibers lead to distorted nerve impulses; blurred vision, loss of balance, poor coordination, slurred speech, blindness, extreme fatigue; problem with memory; just very debilitating

64
Q

neuron regeneration in PNS

A

fibers that have been crushed or partially cut can slowly regenerate if cell body remains undamaged; damaged sections degenerates and cleaned out leaving myelin sheath hollow; healthy fiber grows along the empty sheath; innervation is restored as the axon reestablished contact with its effector

65
Q

neuron regeneration in CNS

A

natural regeneration due to: oligodendrocytes do not release growth factor; space limitations in crowded CNS; astrocytes and connective tissue coverings may form scar tissue that obstructs axon growth; neural stem cells may be able to regenerate CNS axons

66
Q

nervous system

A

maintaining homeostasis; monitoring the body’s internal and external environments; integrating sensory info; directing or coordinating the responses of other systems to senosry input

67
Q

the brain

A

average weighs about 3 lbs, volume of 71 in cubed; male 10% larger due to average body size difference; brain size and intelligence has no correlation; 100 billion neurons, 1 trillion neuroglia; during transition brain cells grow in size and degree of myelination; only number of glial cells increase after infancy

68
Q

gray matter tissue area

A

contains motor neuron and interneuron cell bodies, dendrite, telodendria, and unmyelinated axons; forms the cortex that covers the surface of most of the adult brain; forms discrete internal clusters called cerebral nuclie

69
Q

white matter tissue area

A

made up of myelinated axons; lies deep to the gray matter of the cortex

70
Q

support and protection of the brain

A

bones of the skull; meninges; cerebrospinal fluid; blood brain barrier

71
Q

cranial meninges

A

connective tissue layers that covers and protects the brain and spinal cord; separates the soft tissue of the brain from bones of cranium; enclose and protect blood vessels that supply the brain; contain and circulate cerebropinal fluid; layers: dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater

72
Q

meningitis

A

inflammation of meninges; caused by bacterial or viral infection, although some fungal infections or tumors also cause is; sudden fever, severe headache, stiff neck,; sever cases: vomiting, nausea, confusion, disorientation, sensitivity to light, poor appetitie; hemophilus influenza type b and streptococcus pneumoniae vaccine greatly reduced it; new meningococcal vaccine against neisseria meningitides

73
Q

brain ventricles

A

derived from the embryonic neural tube that are continuous with one another and the central canal of the spinal cord; contain cerebral spinal fluid; four total

74
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

clear colorless liquid that circulates in the ventricles and subarachnoid space; functions: buoyancy (floats); protection (liquid cushion from sudden movements); transports nutrients and removes waste from the brain

75
Q

CSF formation

A

formed by choroid plexus in each ventricle; produced as an exudate from ependymal cells; similar to blood plasma with differing ion concentration

76
Q

hydrocephalus

A

pathologic condition, excessive CSF leading to brain distortion; 1 in 500 born with it; result of obstruction of CSF flow preventing reabsorption into the bloodstream; treated by inserting shunt, drains excess; new treatmnt drills hole in floor of third ventricle and draining into subarachnoid space

77
Q

cerebrum

A

location of conscious thought processes and the origin of intellectual functions; contains a large number of neurons which are needed for complex analytical and integrative functions; most superior portion; surface covered with ridges(gyri) separated by sulci or fissures; outer layer is cerebral cortex, gray matter; internal is white matter

78
Q

cerebral hemisperes

A

two halves of cerebrum; left and right

79
Q

longitudinal fissure

A

divides hemispheres; extends along the midsagittal plane

80
Q

tracts

A

bundles of axons that from white matter regions that allow for communication

81
Q

corpus callosum

A

largest tract and the main tract that connects the two hemispheres

82
Q

lobes of cerebrum

A

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and insula

83
Q

frontal lobe

A

orchestrates voluntary motor functions, concentration, verbal communication, decision making, planning, personality

84
Q

parietal lobe

A

involved with general sensory functions

85
Q

temporal lobe

A

hearing and smell

86
Q

occipital lobe

A

processes incoming visual info and stores visual memories

87
Q

insula

A

likely involved in memory and interpretation of taste

88
Q

functional areas of cerebrum

A

motor areas(control voluntary motor functions); sensory areas(provide conscious awareness of sensation); association areas(integrate and store info)

89
Q

diencephalon

A

region of the brain located between the inferior regions of the cerebral hemispheres; “in between” brain; epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus

90
Q

epithalamus

A

partially forms posterior roof of the diencephalon; pineal gland which secretes melatonin, hormone that helps regulate day and night cycles (circadian rhythm)

91
Q

thalamus

A

paired oval masses of gray matter that lie on each side of the third ventricle; principal and final relay point for sensory info that will be processed and projected to the somatosensory cortex; “information filter”

92
Q

functions of hypothalamus

A

master control of autonomic nervous system, endocrine system; regulation of body temp; control of emotional behavior, food intake, water intake; regulation of sleep wake rhythms

93
Q

major regions of human brain

A

brainstem; cerebellum

94
Q

brainstem

A

connects forebrain and cerebellum to spinal cord; bidirectional passageway for all tracts extending between cerebrum and spinal cord; many autonomic centers and reflex centers required for survival; houses cell bodies of many of the cranial nerves

95
Q

midbrain

A

mesencephalon is the superior portion of the brainstem; process of visual info(reflexes, movement of eyes, focusing of lens, dilation of pupils)’ contains the reticular activating system responsible for wakefulness

96
Q

pons

A

bulging region of the anterior part of the brainstem; houses 2 autonomic respiratory centers that regulare the rate/depth of breathing and influence respiratory center located in the medulla

97
Q

medulla oblongata

A

most inferior part; continues with spinal cord inferiority; all communication between the brain and spinal cord involves tracts that ascend or descend through the medulla oblongata; relays messages between spinal cord and brain and to cerebrum

98
Q

cardiac center

A

regulates the heart rate and strength of contraction

99
Q

vasomotor center

A

regulated contraction/relaxation of smooth muscles in the walls of arterioles to regulate blood pressure

100
Q

respiratory center

A

regulates respiratory rate (influenced by pons); coughing, sneezing, swallowing, gagging vomiting

101
Q

cerebellum

A

second largest part of brain; complex highly convoluted surface covered by a layer of cerebella cortex; folds called folia; composed of left and right cerebellar hemispheric

102
Q

cerebellar functions

A

coordinates and fine tunes skeletal muscle movements, ensures that skeletal muscle contraction follows the correct pattern leading to smooth coordinated movements; stores memories or previously learned movement patterns; adjusts skeletal muscle activity to maintain equilibrium and posture; receives sensory info from muscles and joints, uses info to regulate the body’s positions; monitors position of each body joint and its muscle tone

103
Q

effect of alcohol

A

impair normal functions of cerebellum; ataxia- uncoordinated jerky movements; tests: disturbance gait, loss of balance and posture, inability to detect proprioceptive info

biology 101 (5 decks)

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