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test 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

digestive system

A

organs injest the food; transport the ingested material; digest the material into smaller usable components; absorb the necessary digested nutrients into the bloodstream; expel waste products from the body

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2
Q

digestion

A

the act or process of converting food into chemical substances that can be absorbed and assimilated

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3
Q

catabolic reactions

A

break down molecules to supply energy

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4
Q

anabolic reactions

A

synthesis of macromolecules

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5
Q

functions of the cell

A

to generate energy captures in the bonds of molecules; synthesize new molecules; housekeeping in cell

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6
Q

hydrolysis

A

splitting of a polymer by adding water to a covalent bond; catalyzed by a hydrolyase enzyme

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7
Q

enzymatic hydrolysis

A

active site is available for a molecule of substrate, the reactant on which the enzyme acts; substratebinds to enzyme; substrate is converted to products; products are released

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8
Q

digestive anatomy

A

digestive organs and accessory digestive organs

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9
Q

digestive organs

A

make up GI tract (alimentary canal, gut)

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10
Q

gi tract organs

A

oral cavity; pharynx; esophagus; stomach; small intestine; large intestine

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11
Q

accessory digestive organs

A

teeth; tongue; salivary glands; liver; gall bladder; pancreas; biliary apparatus

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12
Q

oral cavity

A

cheeks, lips, palate; tongue, salivary glands, teeth

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13
Q

cheeks

A

cheeks form the lateral wall; cheeks end anteriorly as the lips; gums cover the alveolar processes of the teeth; internal surface of the upper and lower lips are attached to the gingivae by the thin, midline mucosa fold called labial frenulum

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14
Q

palate

A

form the roof; anterior 2/3 of the palate is the hard palate comprised of bone and the posterior 1/3 of the palate is soft and muscular and is called the soft palate

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15
Q

uvula

A

extends from the soft palate posteriorly, elevates during swallowing and closes off the posterior entrance to the nasopharynx

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16
Q

tongue

A

manipulates and mixes ingested materials during chewing and helps compress the partially digested materials into a bolus; inferior surface attaches to the floor by a thin midline mucous membrane called the lingual frenulum

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17
Q

bolus

A

globular mass of ingested materials that can be more easily swallowed

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18
Q

teeth

A

collectively known as the dentition; exposed crown, a constricted neck and one or more roots that fit into dental alveoli; dentin forms the primary mass of the tooth; each root is covered with cementum; external surface of the dentin is covered with a layer of enamel that forms the crown of the tooth

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19
Q

types of teeth

A

deciduous teeth and permanent

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20
Q

deciduous teeth

A

erupt between 6-30 months, 20 in number often called milk teeth

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21
Q

permanent teeth

A

replace the deciduous teeth and are 32 in number

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22
Q

salivary glands

A

produce and secret saliva into the oral cavity; parotid gland, submandibular gland, sublingual gland

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23
Q

saliva

A

moistens ingested materials to become a slick bolus; moistens, cleanses and lubricates the structures of the oral cavity; chemical digestion of ingested materials; antibacterial action; dissolves materials so that taste receptors on the tongue can be stimulated

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24
Q

parotid gland

A

largest of the three salivary glands; anterior and inferior to the ear; secrete 25-30% of total saliva; parotid duct runs parallel to the zygomatic arch and pierces the buccinators muscle just opposite the second upper molar; secretes amylase

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25
Q

submandibular gland

A

reside inferior to the body of the mandible; produce the majority of the saliva (60-70%)

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26
Q

submandibular duct

A

transports saliva from each gland through a papilla in the floor of the mouth on the lateral sides of the lingual frenulum

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27
Q

sublingual salivary glands

A

inferior to the tongue; extends multiple tiny sublingual ducts that open onto the inferior surface of the oral cavity; 3-5% of saliva

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28
Q

salivary gland secretion

A

mucous cells and serous cells

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29
Q

mucous cells

A

secrete mucin which forms mucous upon hydration

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30
Q

serous cells

A

secrete watery fluid containing ions, lysozyme and salivary amylase

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31
Q

pharynx

A

shared by the respiratory and digestive systems; fibromuscular tube which extends from the base of the skull to the lower border to the cricoid cartilage;

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32
Q

pharyngeal constrictors

A

superior, middle, inferior; external skeletal muscles participate in swallowing; during swallowing, successive contraction of the superior, middle and inferior constrictor muscles helps to propel the bolus of food down into the esophagus

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33
Q

esophagus

A

tubular passageway that conducts ingested materials from the pharynx to the stomach; passes through the esophageal hiatus as it connects to the stomach; 25cm long

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34
Q

wall of the GI tract

A

composed of four concentric layers -tunics; mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, adventitia or serosa

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35
Q

mucosa

A

deepest layer; superficial epithelium; underlying areolar connective tissue-lamina propria; thin layer of smooth muscle-muscularis mucosae

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36
Q

submucosa

A

include: lymphatic ducts; mucin-secreting glands; blood vessels; nerves

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37
Q

muscularis

A

two layers of smooth muscle: inner circular layer- constrict lumen, forms sphincters
outer longitudinal layer
**esophagus has a mix of both smooth and skeletal muscle; stomach contains three layers of smooth muscle

38
Q

adventitia; serosa

A

outermost layer; areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers

39
Q

inferior esophageal sphincter

A

junction of esophagus and stomach; prevents materials from regurgitating from the stomach into the esophagus

40
Q

superior esophageal sphincter

A

junction of pharynx and the esophagus; closes during inhalation preventing air from entering the GI tract

41
Q

phases of swallowing

A

voluntary phase, pharyngeal phase, esophageal phase

42
Q

voluntary phase

A

bolus of food is pushed by tongue against hard palate and then moves toward oropharynx

43
Q

pharyngeal phase

A

involuntary; bolus moves into oropharynx, soft palate and uvula close off nasopharynx, larynx elevates so epiglottis closes over laryngeal opening

44
Q

esophageal phase

A

involuntary; contractions of the esophageal muscle push bolus toward stomach, soft palate uvula and larynx return to their pre-swallowing positions

45
Q

stomach

A

upper left quadrant of abdomen; continues mechanical and chemical digestion of bolus, eventually processed into chime;

46
Q

regions of the stomach

A

cardia, fundus, body, pyloris; inferior border-greater curvature; superior border-inferior curvature; internal surface is thrown into folds-gastric folds

47
Q

wall of stomach

A

lined by simple columnar epithelium; little absorption occurs in the stomach; indented by numerous depressions- gastric pits

48
Q

gastric secretions

A

by gastric glands at base of gastric pits that secrete products into the stomach

49
Q

small intestine

A

finishes chemical digestion; absorbs most nutrietns; major site of chemical digestion and absorption; 6m in cadaver but shorter in living person; duodenum; jejunum; ileum

50
Q

histology of small intestine

A

mucosa and submucosal thrown into folds- circular folds; microscopic fingerlike projections called villi can be seen on the surface of the circular folds; microvilli can be seen on surface of villi

51
Q

large intestine

A

three sided perimeter around small intestine; 6.5cm; absorbs fluids ad ions, compacts undigestible wastes and solidifies into feces-stored until defecation; cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal

52
Q

cecum

A

first part of large intestine; blind sac located in right lower quadrant; ileocecal valve represents junction between small intestine and large intestine

53
Q

ascending colon

A

originates in ileocecal valve and ascends right side of abdomen; approaches inferior border of live, 90 degree turn to left side of cavity-right colic flexure

54
Q

transverse colon

A

originates at the right colic flexure, approaches the spleen in upper left; 90 degree turn inferiorly at spleen-left colic flexure

55
Q

descending colon

A

originates at the left colic flexure; left side of abdomen; terminates into the sigmoid colon

56
Q

sigmoid colon

A

resembles the letter S; terminates into rectum

57
Q

rectum

A

muscular tube, readily expands to store accumulated fecal material prior to defecation; rectal valves- three thick transverse folds ensure that fecal material is retained during passage of gas; terminates at anal canal

58
Q

anal canal

A

passes through levator ani muscles of the pelvic floor; anal sinuses secrete mucin for lubrication during defecation; internal and external anal sphincters open and close the anal canal during defecation

59
Q

histology of the large intestine

A

lined with simple cuboidal epithelium and goblet cells which secrete mucin to lubricate the fecal material

60
Q

liver

A

right quadrant; necessary for survival; glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells; plasma protein synthesis; hormone production; detoxification

61
Q

gall bladder

A

embedded on the inferior surface of liver; collect and concentrate bile; cystic duct connects gall baldder to common bile duct

62
Q

biliary apparatus

A

network of thin ducts that transport bile from live and gall bladder to duodenum; storage of bile

63
Q

pancreas

A

secrete digestive enzymes and bicarbonate-pancreatic juices-into duodenum via pancreatic duct

64
Q

lymphatic system

A

return interstitial fluid back to the bloodstream; production and maturation of lymphocytes; generates an immune response

65
Q

lymph

A

comprised of interstitial fluid; solutes; foreign materials

66
Q

lymphatic vessels

A

formed by lymphatic capillaries; resemble in that they have components of all three vascular tunics and possess valves similar to veins

67
Q

afferent lymphatic vessels

A

bring lymph to a lymph node

68
Q

efferent lymphatic vessels

A

transport filtered lymph away from the lymph node

69
Q

lymphatic flow

A

lymphatic capillaries; lymphatic vessels; lymphatic trunks; lymphatic ducts

70
Q

lymphatic organs

A

thymus; lymph nodes; spleen; tonsils

71
Q

thymus

A

bilobed organ located superficial to the heart; continues to grow until puberty and then begins to regress in size and function; site of t-lymphocyte differentiation and maturation in fetus and early childhood

72
Q

lymph nodes

A

small round or oval structures located along the pathway of lymph vessels; found in clusters 1-25mm; filter antigens from the lymph and initiate an immune response

73
Q

spleen

A

initiates an immune response when antigens are found in blood; phagocytizes old red blood cells and platelets, bacteria and other foreign materials; contains a reservoir of platelets

74
Q

tonsils

A

mainly in the pharynx; large clusters of lymphatic cells and extracellular matrix that do not have a completed surrounding capsule; outer ridges are invaginated to form crypts which allow for trapping of antigens to be presented to the lymphocytes

75
Q

lymphatic cells

A

macrophages (phagocytic cells); nurse cells (specialized macrophages found in bone marrow); dendrite cells (antigen presenting cells); lymphocytes (t-cells, b-cells, nk cells)

76
Q

immune system

A

innate immunity; adaptive immunity

77
Q

innate immunity

A

skin, stomach acid and difestive enzymes, saliva, tears, inflammatory response; phagocytic cells (macrophages, neutrophils)

78
Q

adaptive immunity

A

humoral (b-cell immunity); cellular (t-cell immunity)

79
Q

leukocytes

A

possess a nucleus and organelles; help initiate an immune response and defend the body against pathogens; 1.5-3 times larger than red blood cells; capable of leaving blood vessels-diapedesis and entering a tissue; attracted to a site of infection by molecules from damaged cells or invading pathogens-chemotaxis

80
Q

macrophages

A

make up the leukocytes; derived from monocytes; phagocytic cells; stimulatory response

81
Q

neutrophils

A

make up leukocytes; inflammatory first responders; leave blood via chemotaxis; short life span; numerous

82
Q

lymphocytes

A

all three types migrate through the lymphatic system and search for the presence of antigens; found in lymphoid organs

83
Q

t-lymphocytes

A

make up about 70-85% of body lymphocytes; helper t-lymphocytes; cytotoxic t-lymphocytes

84
Q

helper t-lymphocytes

A

cd4+ t cells; express the surface protein cd4; these cells are unusual in that they have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity; involved in activating and directing other immune cells via secretion of cytokines; cd4 is the primary receptor used by hiv to gain access to helper t-cells

85
Q

cytotoxic t-lymphocytes

A

cd8+, t8 cells contain the surface marker cd8; come in direct contact with infected or foreign cells and kill them; acts only after it is activated by a helper t-lymphocyte that presents an antigen

86
Q

b-lymphocytes

A

15-30% of body lymphocytes; contain antigen receptors to only one antigen and produce immunoglobins or antibodies to that single antigen; encounters its cognate antigen and receives an additional signal from a t helper cell, further differentiate into plasma b or memory b cells

87
Q

plasma cells

A

what activated b-lymphocytes become and secrete large amounts of antibodies; short lived less than a week, long lived months or years

88
Q

memory b-lymphocytes

A

long lived b lymphocytes and confer years or lifetime immunity to certain antigens

89
Q

primary immune response

A

develops the first time a specific antigen enters the body; relatively slow and weak

90
Q

secondary immune response

A

develops upon repeated exposure to same antigen; faster and more robust

biology 101 (5 decks)

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