Test #3 Study Guide Flashcards
Source Misattribution
distortion- memory distortion that occurs when people misremember where he/she encountered the information ex. -false fame effect -sleeper effect -cryptomnesia -source memory
Suggestibility
distortion- the development of biased memories from misleading information
Memory Bias
distortion- the changing of memories over time so that they come consistent with current beliefs/attitudes
Flashbulb Memories
vivid episodic memories for circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing event (ex. 9/11)
False Fame Effect
?
Sleeper Effect
highly credible sources are initially more influential, but over time the difference diminishes
Cryptomnesia
a type of misattribution that occurs when a person thinks he/she has come up with a new idea, yet has only retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to it’s proper source
Source Memory
person shows memory for an event but cannot remember where he/she encountered the information
Loftus “Lost in the Mall” Experiment
- told college kids three true stories and one false one and 5/24 chose wrong event as false memory
- ->memories can be distorted/implanted by false info
- made the false memory seem very memorable
Loftus “Car Crash” Experiment
showed subjects video of car crash, asked different questions (hit vs. smashed) and the harsher word (“smashed”) resulted in a faster estimated speed during the collision
What was Segret’s false memory?
getting kidnapped by gypsies at age 5
What was Segret’s false memory?
getting kidnapped by gypsies at age 5
Eyewitness Testimony: confidence vs. accuracy
having more confidence in an event normally means that the memory is false
extreme confidence = less accuracy
Eyewitness Testimony: reasons for errors
- giving eyewitness lots of time for identification (longer = more uncertainty)
- presenting suspects in a lineup or asking witnesses to pick between options –> not comparing to memory
- cross-ethnic identification
- police officers may reinforce decisions
Eyewitness Testimony: How to Improve
- show one suspect at a time
- ask for quick decision, face recognition should be quick
- don’t ask leading questions
- have presenter blind to condition/situation
- be suspicious of extreme confidence = less accuracy
False Confessions
?
False Confessions
believing you did something because someone else said you did
What is social psychology?
how people think about, influence, and relate to other people
Attribution Theory
how and why people explain events as they do
What are types of attribution?
- Personal/Internal or Dispositional Attribution: refer to things within people, such as abilities, moods, or efforts (ex. hard work)
- Situational/External Attributions: refers to outside events, such as luck, accidents, or the actions of other people (ex.. bad calls by refs)
What are types of attribution?
- Personal/Internal or Dispositional Attribution: refer to things within people, such as abilities, moods, or efforts (ex. hard work)
- Situational/External Attributions: refers to outside events, such as luck, accidents, or the actions of other people (ex.. bad calls by refs)
Fundamental Attribution Error
occurs when we try to explain someone else’s behavior
-consistent tendency to make us look best (overemphasize personality traits and underestimate the situation)
Self-Serving Bias
our failures –> attributed to situational, unstable, or uncontrollable factors in a way that casts us in positive light
our successes –> attributed to personal, permanent factors in a way that gives us credit for doing well
Zimbardo Prison Study
groups of people brought in to role play guards and prisoners (no initial difference)
-guards became harsh with prisoners as they filled their role
Power of the Situation
?
Conformity
altering one’s behaviors/opinions to match those of other people or the match other people’s expectations
Asch Conformity Experiment
“visual perception study”
- everyone sits around table, only one real participant
- shown a standard line and must pick out one that is most similar –> all subjects choose “1” (when it is actually “2”) and most participants will choose “1” as well to conform to the group consensus
- bigger group –> more conformity
Conditions that strengthen conformity
- social norms: expected standards of conduct
- larger group side
- group unanimity
Conditions that strengthen conformity
- social norms: expected standards of conduct
- larger group side
- group unanimity
Reasons for conforming
- Normative Influence: occurs when we go along with the crowd to avoid looking foolish
- Informative Influence: occurs when we assume that the behavior of the crown represents the correct way to respond
Reasons for conforming
- Normative Influence: occurs when we go along with the crowd to avoid looking foolish
- Informative Influence: occurs when we assume that the behavior of the crown represents the correct way to respond
Compliance
agreeing to a request made by others
Foot-In-The-Door effect
ask for something small, gradually work up to asking for something large
Door-In-The-Face effect
ask for something outrageous, come back with counter request that you actually wanted to begin with (now seems more “reasonable”)
Obedience
following orders of an authority figure
Milgram Experiment
-interested in knowing why people obey orders, even to harm people
-read words to learner - wrong recitation? = shock with increasing voltage
RESULTS: 65% of subjects gave fatal shocks because experimenter tole them to, subjects said it was traumatic, but know to be more cautious now
When are we less likely to be obedient?
- when learner is in same room
- when experimenter is out of room = less authority
- less prestigious setting
- watch someone else say no
- teacher gets to choose shock level
When are we less likely to be obedient?
- when learner is in same room
- when experimenter is out of room = less authority
- less prestigious setting
- watch someone else say no
- teacher gets to choose shock level
Social Loafing
people work less hard when in a group than when alone
-can be prevented by monitoring individuals efforts in group
Social Facilitation
tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of other
Social Facilitation
tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of other
What is Zajoncs Model?
presence of others can enhance/impair performance
- enhance if dominant response is relatively easy
- impair if dominant response is difficult
What is Zajoncs Model?
presence of others can enhance/impair performance
- enhance if dominant response is relatively easy
- impair if dominant response is difficult
Deindividualization
removing individual identity, a state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards
Risky-Shift Effect
decisions made by a group tend to be more risky than ones made by individuals
Group polarization
- group position starts neutral
- initial attitude of one or few members determine if the group position becomes riskier or more cautious
Groupthink
an extreme form of group polarization, results when group members are afraid to dissent, concerned about maintaining the group’s cohesiveness
Attitudes
people’s evaluations of objects, events, or ideas
Implicit vs. Explicit Attitudes
Implicit: attitudes that influence a person’s feelings/behavior at an innocuous level
Explicit: attitudes a person can report
Cognitive Dissonance
an uncomfortable mental state due to a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior (ex. value your health, but still smoke)
How to stop dissonance
- change behavior (ex. quit smoking)
- change attitude (ex. “smoking’s not so bad for me”)
- trivialize the discrepancies (ex. “I don’t smoke that much”)
- rationalize away the conflict (ex. “I won’t get sick”)
Festinger Experiment
- Cognitive Dissonance
- participants did a boring task, were to tell others how enjoyable it was
- some paid $20, some paid $1 to lie about enjoyment
- ->results: $1 group said it was more interesting than $20 group, they changed their attitude
Post-Decisional Dissonance
automatic process, focus on positive aspects of chosen option and the negative aspects of the non-chosen option, avoids having regret (ex. new car over old car)
Insufficient Justification
way to change attitudes by changing behaviors first, using as few incentives as possible
By-stander Effect
failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need
“Good Samaritan” Study
-seminary student asked to talk about the “Good Samaritan” story, told they were late, ran, didn’t NOTICE man in need of help on their way, ran by then because they were too focused on their task
“Smoke-Filled Room” Study
- ->Interpreting Event as an Emergency
- subjects waiting for experiment
- smoke begins to fill room
- IV: # of other people waiting in the room
- ->results: participants who were alone went quickest, when there were other people who didn’t go it took longer
Communication Study
- ->Feeling Personal Responsibility
- subjects in cubicle are in communication with others via intercom
- one participant has a “seizure”
- IV: # of people in communication
- DV: how long it took to go for help
- ->results: alone = personal responsibility and quickest to go get help
Diffusion of Responsibility
more people available to help, you are less likely to help
What is Segret’s favorite artist?
Turner (the painter)
What is Segret’s greatest childhood memory?
going to the beach
What are the criteria for diagnosing a psychological disorder?
- Atypical
- Disturbing
- Maladaptive
Atypical
rare, deviates from cultural norms for acceptable behavior (ex. Aaron Hernandez- football player who murdered friend, guilty, laughing in court, lack of remorse, no emotion)
–>atypical isn’t enough
Disturbing
causes discomfort and concern to oneself or to others, impairs a person’s social relationships
–>disturbing is not enough (ex. Miley Cyrus)
Maladaptive
interferes with daily functioning
Maladaptive
interferes with daily functioning, self-destructive
DSM-5
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual - describes observable symptoms of psychological disorders
Problems with DSM-5
- doesn’t account for overlap or co-morbitity between disorders
- categorical diagnosis: either/or, not a continuum
- diagnosis can be subjective
- based on symptoms, not underlying causes
- labels affect perceptions
Problems with DSM-5
- doesn’t account for overlap or co-morbidity between disorders
- categorical diagnosis: either/or, not a continuum
- diagnosis can be subjective
- based on symptoms, not underlying causes
- labels affect perceptions
comorbidity
?
diatheses stress model
a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event
Rosenhan Study: Being Sane in Unsane Places
- graduate students didn’t bathe for one week
- admit themselves to mental institution - diagnosed with schizophrenia
- normal behavior ignored/interpreted as abnormal
- released only by promising to take anti-psychotic meds
- -> avg stay in institution was 19 days
Rosenhan Study: Being Sane in Unsane Places
- graduate students didn’t bathe for one week
- admit themselves to mental institution - diagnosed with schizophrenia
- normal behavior ignored/interpreted as abnormal
- released only by promising to take anti-psychotic meds
- -> avg stay in institution was 19 days
Rosenhan Study: Being Sane in Unsane Places
- graduate students didn’t bathe for one week
- admit themselves to mental institution - diagnosed with schizophrenia
- normal behavior ignored/interpreted as abnormal
- released only by promising to take anti-psychotic meds
- -> avg stay in institution was 19 days
What are types of testing for psychological disorders?
- Rorschach
- TAT
- Beck Depression Inventory
- projective tests
- evidence-base tests
diatheses stress model
disorder resulting from diathesis (underlying vulnerability) and stress (precipitating event)
-possible vulnerabilities: genetics, prenatal problems, childhood events, differences in brain activity/structure
What are types of testing for psychological disorders?
- Rorschach
- TAT
- Beck Depression Inventory
- projective tests
- evidence-base tests
Rorschach Test
- projective test
- shows ambiguous stimuli, ask pt what they see
- problem: it’s useless, no relationship between what they see and a psychological disorder
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
- ambiguous social situation shown, told to create a story from image
- problem: it’s useless, no relationship between what they see and a psychological disorder
Beck Depression Inventory
- questions about mental state/feelings about self
- good at identifying depression
Subjective Assessments
Problem: individual clinicians often choose assessment procedures based on their subjective beliefs and training rather than based on scientific studies
*Non-valid assessments: projective tests (have not been shown to be helpful in predicting kinds of treatment that are useful
Evidence-Based Assessments
- clinical evaluations supported by research
* valid assessment: Beck
Gender Differences
Internalizing Disorders: characterized by negative emotions (ex. major depression, panic disorders, anxiety disorders) –> more in women
Externalizing Disorders: characterized by disinhibition (ex. drug/alcohol abuse, conduct disorders, antisocial behavior) –> more in men
Gender Differences
Internalizing Disorders: characterized by negative emotions (ex. major depression, panic disorders, anxiety disorders) –> more in women
Externalizing Disorders: characterized by disinhibition (ex. drug/alcohol abuse, conduct disorders, antisocial behavior) –> more in men
Anxiety Disorders
excessive anxiety in the absence of true danger
- 25% lifetime prevalence
- types: specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder
- more common in women
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
a diffuse state of constant anxiety not associated with any specific object or event
- 6% of population
- symptom: hypervigilance- results in distractibility, fatigue, irritability, and sleep problems, as well as headaches, restlessness, lightheadedness, and muscle pain
Inhibited Temperament
tendency to avoid unfamiliar people and novel objects
-seen in early life/childhood
Panic Disorder
sudden overwhelming attacks of terror
- linked with increased suicide risk
- can be triggered by marijuana use
- 3% of population
Agoraphobia
fear of not being able to escape the situation
-ex. fear of leaving home
Agoraphobia
fear of not being able to escape the situation
-ex. fear of leaving home
Specific Phobia
fear of a specific object or situation
-12-13% of population
Social Anxiety Disorder
fear of being negatively evaluated by others
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
caused by obsessions and compulsions
- obsessions: recurrent, intrusive, and unwanted thoughts/ideas/mental images
- particular acts that the OCD patient feels driven to perform over and over again (ex. repeatedly washing hands)
- 2% of population
- negative reinforcement cycle: compulsions take away anxiety –> increase of behavior happening again
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
caused by obsessions and compulsions
- obsessions: recurrent, intrusive, and unwanted thoughts/ideas/mental images
- particular acts that the OCD patient feels driven to perform over and over again (ex. repeatedly washing hands)
- 2% of population
- negative reinforcement cycle: compulsions take away anxiety –> increase of behavior happening again
Causes of OCD
Learning:
-classical conditioning: anxiety paired to specific event
-operant conditioning: anxiety reduced by engaging in a particular behavior
Biological:
-genetics
-brain structures: caudate, a structure involved in suppressing impulses, is smaller and structural abnormalities
-environmental factors: strep infection
Causes of anxiety disorders
cognitive: perception/memory of events/objects
situational: learned factors
biological: genetic temperament, brain activity
Causes of anxiety disorders
cognitive: perception/memory of events/objects
situational: learned factors
biological: genetic temperament, brain activity
Cognitive Components of Anxiety Disorders
Perception: see neutral/ambiguous situations as threatening
Attention: focus excessive attention on perceived threats
Selective Memory: recall threatening events more easily, exaggerate
Situational Components of Anxiety Disorders
- Pavlovian/Observational Learning
- learned fear can generalize to other situations
Biological Components of Anxiety Disorders
- genetics
- inhibited temperamental style
- brain differences: greater activation of amygdala (fear processing)
Major Depression Symptoms
- severe negative moods
- lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities
- changes in sleep/appetite
- difficulty concentrating
- fatigue, decreased energy
- thoughts of suicide
How is depression linked to brain changes?
- increased blood flow to frontal cortex/amygdala
- decreased blood flow to areas implicated with attention
- cortex of right hemisphere is thinner
- lower activity in left hemisphere
What are gender differences with depression?
More diagnosed in women:
- men may not seek help
- may reflect endocrine physiology, related to reproductive cycle
- postpartum depression
How is depression linked to sleep?
Sleep is altered by depression:
- stage 3 sleep is reduced
- pts enter REM sleep quickly with increase of REM at beginning of sleep
- ->Seasonal Affective Disorder: affects seasonal rhythms (treating insomnia can treat depression)
Dysthymia
form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depression
- 3% of population
- lasts long time (avg 5-10 years)
- ->many classify it as personality disorder b/c of length
Bipolar Disorder
characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania
- 4% lifetime prevalence
- affects men/women equally
- ->linked to increased creativity
Bipolar Disorder
characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania
- 4% lifetime prevalence
- affects men/women equally
- ->linked to increased creativity
Schizophrenia
characterized by a split between thought and emotion
- psychosis: split from reality
- NOT split personality
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Positive Symptoms: abnormal behaviors that are gained (ex. hallucinations, delusions, excited motor behavior)
Negative Symptoms: result of lost functions (ex. slow thought/speech, emotional/social withdrawal, blunted (no) affect or emotional expression)
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Positive Symptoms: abnormal behaviors that are gained (ex. hallucinations, delusions, excited motor behavior)
Negative Symptoms: result of lost functions (ex. slow thought/speech, emotional/social withdrawal, blunted (no) affect or emotional expression)
Biological Causes of Schizophrenia
- Genetics
- Neurochemistry: abnormality in neurotransmitters increase dopamine
- Brain Differences: enlarged ventricles in brain, hypofrontality, decreased gray matter)
transience
forgetting- reduced memory over time
blocking
forgetting- inability to remember needed information
absentmindedness
forgetting- reduced memory due to failing to pay attention
persistence
undesirable- the resurgence of unwanted or disturbing memories that we would like to forget
proactive interference
old information inhibits the ability to remember new information
retroactive interference
new information inhibits the ability to remember old information
amnesia
a deficit in long term memory, resulting from disease, brain injury, or psychological trauma, in which the individual loses the ability to retrieve vast quantities of information from long-term memory
retrograde vs. anterograde amnesia
retrograde- loss of old memories
anterograde- loss of ability to form new memories
source amnesia
a form of misattribution that occurs when a person has a memory for an event but cannot remember where he/she encountered the information
confabulation
the unintended false recollection of episodic memories, recall mistaken facts
justifying effort
resolving of dissonance by inflating the importance of the group/their commitment to it (ex. hazing)
dissonance
lack of agreement
altruism
providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so
Kitty Genovese case
young woman savagely attacked for half an hour, none of the 38 witnesses called police or tried to help
etiology
factors that contribute to the development of a disorder
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
questionnaire for psychological assessment developed in the 1930s
Dissociative Disorders
disruptions of identity, memory, or conscious awareness
Dissociative Amnesia
a person forgets that an event happened or loses awareness of a substantial block of time
Dissociative Identity Disorder
- ->formally called multiple personality disorder
- occurence of two or more distinct identities in the same individual
loosening of associations
a speech pattern among some people with schizophrenia in which their thoughts are disorganized/meaningless
Antisocial Personality Disorder
a personality disorder that is marked by a lack of empathy/remorse
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
a pattern of hyperactive, inattentive, an impulsive behavior that causes social or academic impairment
Autistic Disorder
characterized by unresponsiveness, impaired language, social, and cognitive development; and restricted and repetitive behavior
Elimination Disorders
the repeated passing of feces or urination in inappropriate places by children who should be continent
Learning Disorders
marked by substantially low performance in reading, math, or writing with regard to what is expected for age
Mental Retardation
characterized by below-average intellectual functioning (IQ lower than 70) and limited adaptive functioning that begins before age 18
Selective Mutism
failure to speak in certain social situations, despite ability to speak in others
Tourette’s Disorder
recurrent motor and vocal tics that cause marked distress or impairment and are not related to a general medical condition
dialectical behavior therapy
a form of therapy used to treat borderline personality disorder, cognitive + behavioral treatments
- target pts most extreme and dysfunctional behaviors
- ->replace these with positive ones - aid pt to explore past traumatic experiences which may be the root of emotional problems
- help pt develop self-respect/independent problem-solving
applied behavioral analysis
an intensive treatment for autism, based on operant conditioning (behaviors that are reinforced should increase, those that are not reinforced should diminish)
