Chapter Two - Research Methodology

Question 1

The Scientific Method

Answer 1

objective approach to draw conclusions from observations

Theory
     I
Hypothesis
     I
Research
     I        OR      I
support    refute/fail to 
your           support your
theory           theory

Question 2

Theory

Answer 2

interconnected ideas or concepts used to explain prior observations an to make predictions (broad)

Question 3

Hypothesis

Answer 3

a testable prediction about the outcome that would best support the theory

Question 4

Research

Answer 4

the systematic and careful collection of data (goal to avoid bias)

Question 5

What defines a good theory?

Answer 5

1. Generates a testable hypothesis
2. Is falsifiable
3. Is parsimonious

Question 6

descriptive studies

Answer 6

research method that involves observing and noting the behavior of people or other animals to provide a systematic and objective analysis of the behavior

Question 7

naturalistic observation

Answer 7

*descriptive study

researcher is a passive observer, making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior

Question 8

participant observation

Answer 8

*descriptive study

researcher is actively involved in the situation

Question 9

case study

Answer 9

*descriptive study

intensive examination of unusual people or organizations (unique/random occurrences)

Question 10

Ethical Problems with Observational Studies

Answer 10

• deception
• lack of informed consent
• privacy concerns
• researcher loses objectivity (participant observation)

Question 11

longitudinal studies

Answer 11

*developmental design

research method that studies the same participants multiple times over a period of time

Question 12

cross-sectional studies

Answer 12

*developmental design

a research method that compares participants in different groups (ex. young and old) at the same time

Question 13

observer bias

Answer 13

systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s expectations

Question 14

experimenter expectancy effect

Answer 14

actual change in the behavior of the people or nonhuman animals being observed that is due to the expectations of the observer
–>experimenter should be “double-blinded”

Question 15

correlational studies

Answer 15

a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign causation between them

Question 16

directionality problem

Answer 16

a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

Question 17

third variable problem

Answer 17

a problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables, as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest

Question 18

confound

Answer 18

anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of the study

Question 19

external validity

Answer 19

the degree to which the findings of an experiment can be generalized outside the laboratory

Question 20

selection bias

Answer 20

in an experiment, unintended differences between the participants in different groups

Question 21

reactivity

Answer 21

when the knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed

Question 22

self-report methods

Answer 22

methods of data collection in which people are asked to provide information about themselves, such as in a questionnaire or survey

Question 23

response performance

Answer 23

a research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus

Question 24

coincidence

Answer 24

surprising co-occurence of events that we perceive as meaningfully related (ex. sports: playing a certain song -> better performance)

Question 25

selective recall

Answer 25

tendency to remember only facts or events that are unusual, personally enhancing, or that fit a narrative

Question 26

confirmation bias

Answer 26

tendency to attend to and accept facts that fit our pre-existing beliefs and to discount facts that are contradicting

Question 27

affect bias

Answer 27

tendency to make judgements based upon emotions with little input from deliberate reasoning (ex. judges making harsher decisions after an irritating morning)

Question 28

availability bias

Answer 28

tendency to make judgements on the basis of which examples come most easily to find

Question 29

Gambler’s Fallacy

Answer 29

tendency to believe that the odds for occurrence of random events in the future depends on what already happened in the past (ex. 6 tails in a row –> must be a heads next)

Question 30

What are the goals of scientific research?

Answer 30

1. describe
2. explain
3. predict
4. control/apply

Question 31

Types of self-report bias

Answer 31

• socially desirable responding/faking good: person responds in way that is most socially acceptable
• better-than-average effect: people tend to describe themselves in a positive way that are not necessarily true
• selective recall: people don’t remember accurately

Question 32

Developmental designs

Answer 32

examine changes in behavior, mental processing, etc over a lifespan

Question 33

positive vs. negative correlation

Answer 33

pos: both variables change in same direction
neg: as one variable increases, the other decreases

Question 34

strength of correlation

Answer 34

how often do the variables come together

Question 35

correlation coefficient

Answer 35

tells how strong the correlation is

Question 36

experimental design

Answer 36

control situation factors, provide a comparison

Question 37

Hawthorn Effect

Answer 37

non-specific response to any change (ex. increase in productivity due to ANY change in environment)

Question 38

Quasi-Experimental Design

Answer 38

when it is impossible/unethical to manipulate variables (ex. age, gender, cocaine use)
*no random assignment

Question 39

inferential statistics

Answer 39

a set of procedures used to make judgements about whether differences actually exist between sets of numbers

Question 40

meta-analysis

Answer 40

a “study of studies” that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

Question 41

descriptive statistics

Answer 41

statistics that summarize the data collected in a study

Question 42

internal validity

Answer 42

the extend to which the data collected in a study address the research hypothesis in the way intended

Question 43

external validity

Answer 43

is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people

Question 44

ethical issues with research

Answer 44

privacy: invasion of personal things
access to data: must be concerned with who will be able to see the data collected (confidentiality)
informed consent: making a knowledgable decision to participate in an experiment