Test 3 Imagery Flashcards
Concepts
Concepts are needed to have knowledge, knowledge is needed to function.
Depends on prototypes, exemplars, theories, perceptual and active representations.
-You will only focus on what you need in that moment.
Definitions
We know what’s similar to the definition of what it is. A dog’s definition is “4-legs, animal, tail, etc.”
We use this definition to compare and contrast commonalities with other concepts (a cat)
However, there will always be exceptions to the definition, and too broad of concepts (what is a game)
Forces us to use uncertain language “usually follows this”, completely ruins what it means to be a good definition
Establishes boundaries for a category, but this definition doesn’t exist or is insufficient
Family Resemblance
Wiltgenstein proposes category members share resemblance.
There is no defining features that makes a family a family, but just a lot of shared ones. Not all members have this shared trait but some do. (hair color, eye color, etc.)
Imagine an ideal for each family that has all common features, most family members will share some traits of the ideal. This ideal is unrealistic, so we identify what most will have.
Prototype Theory and how it differs from definitions
Definitions set boundaries, they have certain attributes of what is inside the box and ignores all that is outside
Prototype- differs from this boundaries idea. It states the best way to find a category is to find the center of the category rather than the boundaries. (Ideal dog, all dogs are compared to it)
Prototype- average of various category members, this is used as the ideal for conceptual knowledge. Tells us what is typical and offers a quick summary. Attempts to fit things into categories, made with LTM. A dog you see a lot will influence your prototype rather than rare dogs.
Membership of a category depends on resemblance to the prototype, not just a yes or no but a degree.
Graded membership- objects that appear closer to prototype are better members of the category than those far away. Some dogs are doggier than others.
Testing prototype idea (3)
Sentence verification Task- Participants presented with a series of sentences and chose if true or false. They responded slower for “penguin is a bird than robin is a bird”. Chose T/F based on similarity to prototype, those closer to prototype were answered quicker.
Production Task- ask people to name as many birds as they can. They first located a good prototype, than similar birds, than distant ones. The birds named first were the same that were answered quicker in the verification tasks.
-Suggests members privileged at one task will be privileged at others.
Rating tasks- rate each one at how “doggy” the dog is. Those more doggy performed better at other tasks as well.
We can’t trust these rating but we can trust the times.
Basis level Categorization
There is a natural level of organization, not too specific, not too broad.
-We call something a chair, not furniture, not upholstered armchair
We use these base-levels when describing what an object is.
It is easier to state what basis level objects have in common than superordinate
-easier to define a chair than furniture
Kids first learn these basic level than the more specific or general
Exemplar-based reasoning
In some cases categorization relies on knowledge of specific category members rather than a prototype.
-Uncles chair looks like that, so that must be a chair
Exemplar- specific instance, it provides info about category variability. It attempts to fit things into categories, made with LTM. Specific memory about specific member.
It is similar to the prototype view, categorize based by comparing to the standard. The difference is what is the standard.
-It is not the average, but whatever example comes to mind and then we assess similarity as usual.
Combination of Prototype and Exemplar-Based Reasoning
People routinely think about gifts differently in different circumstances (present for friend/teacher)
-Exemplar allows us to have different examples of what to buy for different people
It will vary from person to person- extensive knowledge of horses will create more exemplars rather than an average prototype.
Exemplars also occur if you lack a lot of experience with a category.
Typicality
The degree to which a particular object/situation is typical to it’s kind.
-more typical=more privileged
It hinges on prototypes and exemplars.
-judging if something belongs in a category depends on typicality.
We don’t have black and white, it’s a rating scale. Everyones category is different- it depends on how we use it, the prototype, etc.
Typicality Study
First group- rate each # based how good of an example it is for even #’s
Second group-is this even or odd
-People could judge typicality separate from categorization. 4 was rated more even than 2756 even though they both belong to category. Therefor category membership is different from typicality
Where typicality lacks
If a lemon is painted, ran over, squeezed, it’s still a lemon. It doesn’t resemble lemon but it’s a lemon.
Can turn racecar into coffee pot, you can’t turn a racoon into a skunk.
People reason differently about natural items vs manufactured. Racoon defined by self not appearance.
Deep properties belong on belief, racoon is only a racoon if parents are a racoon. You can be a doctor if your parents aren’t doctors. Counterfeit isn’t really money.
-this all relies on beliefs not typicality. These distinctions can only exist if you have broad understanding of what they are. Intention matters when creating categories
-you must know origin, and know some things will never change, manufactured goods don’t have to stay consistent.
We focus on attributes we believe are essential. Everything has commonalities but we only choose relevant/essential features based on our beliefs.
Subgroup
When something deviates from the category we use an exemplar to associate it with a category.
If something is dramatically different we will form subcategories.
How do prototypes depend on experience
The prototype may not exist, it requires a lot of experience and interaction to be created.
-we are so experienced with people we have different subgroups with a prototype that represents each one.
Superordinate vs subordinate
Super-less specific, sub-more specific.
What do prototypes and exemplars rely on
rely on the judgement of resemblance. This judgement depends on knowledge of what to pay attention to and what to disregard
Can’t characterize individual concepts
We must focus on interactions. To understand what counterfeit, is must understand what money is, what a government is, what crime is.
We must have a broad (possible wrong) understanding/theory of what, why, and how they act.
This all requires a crucial knowledge base.
Function of explanatory theories
Influence how we categorize things, what features matter, etc. Explains why we think concepts exist (why a dog will always be a dog)
-doesn’t always have conscious articulable argument it just exists.
-a person at a party jumps into a pool. We assume they are drunk, but this isn’t definition of drunk nor the prototype. But we all have theories of how drunks behave.
Inferences based on theories
If you learn a fact about 1 dog, you apply it to all dogs.
Most theories rely on stereotypes
Categorization enables us to apply general knowledge to new cases. People will apply new info from a typical case to the whole family. BUT NOT AN ATYPICAL. Facts about robins will change how we view ducks, facts about ducks won’t change how we view robins.
Inferences also based on broader beliefs. If a gazelle has a disease we can assume that the lion could have it, not the other way around. Because we have knowledge of the relationship that lions eat gazelles.
Different profiles for different concepts
natural objects exist due to earth consistency (stable properties). Artifacts change constantly and we can innovate anything.
Some diverse categories are focused on a goal
-diet foods or exercise equipment
relational categories-rivalry, hunting
event categories- visits, dates, shopping
Based on our understanding of goals and some cause and effect relationships between objects and goals. And influenced by web of beliefs about how various elements are related to another.
Concepts and the brain
FMRI scans show different brain sites are activated when thinking about living vs nonliving things. (different concepts have different areas)
Why do we separate- different objects are important to different things, living things identification relies on perception, inanimate relies on function.
-Sensory and motor areas associated when thinking of kicking
-Rainbow-activates color vision areas
suggests conceptual knowledge intertwines with knowledge about what it looks like/ how we use it
Embodied/Grounded cognition Proposal
Body’s sensory and action systems play an essential role in all cognitive processes. So concepts will include representations of perceptual properties and motor sequences associated with each concept.
Knowledge network
In LTM associative links connect node. They don’t just tie together knowledge but represent it.
Less time retrieving knowledge about closely related things than distant since of a shorter association path.
