Test 2 Memory Flashcards
Clive Wearing
Accomplished musician with amnesia. Can still speak, smart, play music, can’t form new memories. Every few moments he “wakes” up again and writes the time with “just woke up” has a constant diary. He said “now is bliss but before, that’s what worries me”
Disrupted episodic but kept semantic
Computer analogy of memory
Acquisition- process of gaining info and placing it in memory.
Storage- Hold info in memory (no idea where stored)
Retrieval- locate info and bring it to use.
Modal Model
Produce of first cognitive psychologists.
Info first goes to sensory memory in it’s raw form, visual=iconic, auditory=echoic
Then to short term- holds memory as you work on it
Then to long term- much larger and more permanent storage place
Updates to modal model
Sensory memory now plays a very small role so modern discussion often don’t even mention it.
Short term memory is now working memory to emphasize that ideas, memories, thoughts are worked on. Not a place but a status of ideas. Limited in size, easy to get into in here (just think), leaves easily (think of something else), and fragile (change your focus idea leaves)
Long term memory- contains all knowledge and beliefs, even those not being working on
Long Term Memory
Contains all episodic knowledge, it’s never ending. Hard to get info into LTM but also hard to get out. Not fragile, remains whether think of it or not. No clear answer of how to get into. Implicit and explicit, simple repetition won’t work for explicit. Hippocampus plays a huge role, and prefrontal cortex
Implicit and Explicit
Study of word span, primacy, recency, and serial position effect
Participants would listen to a series of words (around 30) and they would free recall- name words in no particular order.
Primacy Effect- Remember first words in the list. Attempt to memorize a list by repeating it back multiple times. It doesn’t work because the 1st words gets all your attention, then the 2nd gets 50%, 3rd-33%, etc. Early words don’t have to share attention so there is a greater chance it is remembered.
Recency- remember last words in the list. Since working memory can only hold a few words, the last word said will bump past words out until only 5ish words remain. Last few words don’t leave until new input comes and since this data is easily retrieved we easily remember them.
Serial Position Effect- When you make a chart between word number and percent remembered, it will form a U line.
Are working memory and LTM the same study
Take the word span test but delay recall with a different task. It was found that people could still recall the first words (primacy effect is more into LTM) and forgot the last words (recency is working).
They then slowed down the presentation of the words so more time was spent on each photo. They found an increase of the first words (LTM is endless) but found that working memory didn’t improve (It’s limited).
FMRI’s found that 1st items correlate with hippocampus but last words do not
WORKING MEMORY AND LTM ARE DIFFERENT
Working memory
All mental activities require several pieces of info, sometimes step by step or all at once. Working memory holds all info together.
Creates multiple ideas and thoughts.
The holding capacity differs from person to person, but usually it is 7+-2. Not just one structure but several components, central executive is needed. We don’t know how long a memory lasts since we just repeat things.
Digit Span Test
First holding capacity test. Hear a #, repeat, slowly add them until can’t anymore.
Chunks and can they grow
7+-2 chunks can be held in working memory. George Miller proposed idea, and a chunk can differ from person to person. If you can group letters together you will remember more. The person who loves track events could get 7 chunks of 20 numbers. Chunks are usually made from LTM (area codes).
you can not gain more chunks, but you can change your strategy so each chunk is more valuable.
Operational span and problems with digit span.
Digit span fits modal model that Working memory is a box, it’s a box with a set amount of space. But it is a status not a space.
We need to measure working memory as it’s working. so we use a span that asks you to encode memories and then do a different subject.
Reading span- read aloud sentences, recall sentences last word, do this add 1 sentence till you can’t anymore. The limit it working-memory capacity. The test requires to store materials (last word) while using other operations for other stimuli.
Higher operation span- larger working memory, advantages in tasks that require multiple ideas and integrate various info. Better at reading, SAT, multitasking, etc.
Executive functions “helpers”
These helpers are responsible for running working memory
Articulatory rehearsal loop- repeat chunks in your head. Not hard to repeat the numbers and do a task at the same time. Loop keeps the info, executive- analyzes the other tasks.
Subvocalization- silent speech that allows up to keep the chunks.
Phonological Buffer- Passive storage for recently heard or self-produced sounds (internal echo).
People can make sound alike errors in this . All sounds held in inner ear. Subvocalization keeps the buffer going.
Visuospatial buffer- organize info chronologically,
Episodic Buffer- organize info chronologically.
Concurrent articulation study
Asked participants to say a sound over and over during a span test. It needs speech production tools but they’re not available. This drops the working memory limit to around 3 chunks since the articulatory loop is no longer available, but no sound alike errors.
Sensory Memory
First step in memory. Where external stimuli is first processed. Has echoic and iconic. Momentarily holds sensory info. A lot of data gets in but it is gone in a few seconds so we don’t know specifically. All the info you pay attention to will make it into WM. You can pull from the past in sensory memory if you remember back just a second of two (say what then remember)
Repressed memories
Cognitive psychologists argue these don’t exist. They simply didn’t encode because at the time it wasn’t traumatic. (child sexual abuse)
Two types of rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal- Simply focus on to-be remembered items, not what they mean or how they relate. Repeat over and over. Provides almost no benefit and very rarely they leave working. Only works for implicit not explicit. Best way to encode implicitd
Elaborative rehearsal- Think of what they mean and relate to them. Far more superior for maintenance. Creates and finds many connections. Best way to encode explicit
Does repeated exposure lead to LTM?
No, what does a penny look like? Our memory is awful and we only remember things we pay attention to.
Intentional v. Incidental Learning Study (2) and results
24 words presented to 2 different groups, one knew it was a memory test (intentional) and one didn’t (incidental). It was further split into 3 subgroups, asked does it have an e, how many letters, and is it pleasant. It was found that incidental pleasant did just as well on the test and intentional pleasant.
Another study asked only incidental. Is it lowercase-10% remembered, do they rhyme- 17%, what do they mean-25%
INTENTION DOESN’T MATTER just the level of engagement
Gender differences of memory
No difference between gender in memory accuracy, quantity, or distractibility.
women have an advantage to verbal material, clothing and jewelry, faces, day to day events, emotional events.
Men advantaged at spatial, body shape
These difference reflect attention priorities reflecting their conventional roles.
Connections promote retrieval idea library
Attention to meaning facilitates retrieval not learning. Library catalogues and shelves books but it doesn’t change the arrival of the book it just makes it easier to find. Learning isn’t about placing into LTM but finding it. Connections link one item to other- find one you find all.
Connections memory test
Ask participants if a word fits in a sentence. Some given simple sentences, others complex ones. The ones given complex had better inattentional learning because there was more retrieval paths to guide towards desired content.
George Katana memory idea
Organization is key. If you memorize material well you will find order in it, if you find order in material you will easily remember it.
Mnemonic strategies and why is it bad
Any organization that promotes memory
Started in Ancient Greece (named after goddess of memory).
-First letter- ROYGBIV, Every good boy does fine
-mental imagery
-External skeletons- usually the peg word system, learn a word that attaches to each number and then imagine each word interacting with memorized number word.
Method of loci- Visualize what is where, put locations to words. How actors memorize lines through different spots on the stage.
Usually just focus on material to memorize not actually finding connections, if you meaningfully understand the content then you will retrieve it later.
Really only work for dates, names, or remembering an order
Understanding promotes memory study (3)
Tested people at high school reunions. Those who get an A in classes will remember more than those who got C’s.
Those who are given context for a story will remember it better.
Remember a photo better if you know what it is.
Best way to establish memory into LTM
Depends on the connections you’ve made and the attention you’ve spent. And the preexisting frameworks (car lovers easily learn about cars).
Organization promotes retrieval paths
How should I study
UNDERSTAND MATERIAL.
Ask how the new ideas fit in with preexisting concepts I know. Explain things, space out learning and vary focus (each time you attend you have a new perspective and connections, allows for stuff to be forgotten and needs more engagement).
Multiperspective approach. think of info in different ways so you can have some source memory, familiarity, it can be explicit and implicit.
Test yourself
Buffers
3 ways to momentarily hold data. Verbally, Visually/spatially, and episodic.
Are learning styles real
NO
Emotion and memory
If you can find emotion in data you will remember better because the amygdala is right next to hippocampus. You won’t remember all things related to emotion, won’t recall shooters face, just gun.
Retrieval highway analogy
If you are only building a road from A to B, you will be unable to reach B unless you are at A. If you only have one cue to ring your memory you will have a very difficult time remembering.
Context Dependent Learning and study
Scuba Diver told to memorize a list of words under water, it was found they would have better recall if tested underwater.
They thought thoughts that would accompany underwater, so if these thoughts came up during the test they would be a trigger.
You preform better in circumstances where you learned. A connection is made about the details of where learning took place.
Context-reinstatement- recreate thoughts and feelings of learning environments will get you on the right pathway. You will benefit just as much as if in the same room. Illustrates psychological over physical.
Encoding Specificity
you don’t just remember what you study, but the context. We encode our stimulus and context, and learn broad integrated experiences. this has profound consequences on how we remember the past
Encoding specificity piano study
previously heard “man lifted a piano” or “man tuned piano”, the first group recalled piano as a heavy object, the second recalled a piano as sounding good.
Memory Network and activation spread
Vast network of ideas, each idea is a node. Nodes are related with association and association links. Nodes could be the lightbulb while the association is the electrical wires.
When a node is activated (received a strong signal) it will activate other nodes via associations. When a node reaches the response threshold it fires. Causes node to be a source of activation and draws attention to itself. As nodes fire they activate others and spread, flowing until one path finds the right node.
When memories activate nodes the result is a cumulative response of all of them. The previously nodes will influence how you interpret the final node.
Subthreshold activation
Below response threshold, however 2 of these activations can add together (summation) and bring the node to the threshold.
Tip of tongue sensation.
Retrieval Cues
Activate alternative node of connections and the two paths to get there will probably be enough to lift node activation. Relies on summation and subthreshold activation
Lexical Decision task
Participants shown series of letter sequences, asked to tell if spells word or not. Some words may be related, if bread is shown before butter, butter has a subthreshold activation and will create a quicker response. People had this effect even if they reported forgetting about seeing bread.
This is called semantic priming.
Semantic Priming
More likely to name a object if a related word is seen previously.
Can people stop nodes
Yes! If convinced the wrong nodes are activated they can think of something else, this mechanism is done by executive control. Can prioritize one path over the other.
Recall v. Recognition
Recall-presented with cue and you must conjure up an answer. Depends on memory connections being emphasized. Source memory is an example
Recognition- info is presented and you must decide if it is the sought after info. It depends on familiarity. Even if you lack a source memory you can attribute familiarity to earlier encounters and respond anyway.
Source memory
Recollection of the origin of a specific piece of knowledge. Hippocampus
