Test 1 Vocabulary Flashcards
Cognition
What we know, remember, and think
H.M.
Got surgery to cure epilepsy and he got amnesia . He can remember previous events but can’t form new memory. His hippocampus was damaged and he therefor lost his long term memory
Knowledge
Self-concept, emotions, and understanding
Cognitive Revolution
You cannot study the mind directly so we must study mind to understand
Introspection
William Wundt and Edward Titchener first created this first attempt and experimental psychology. They trained professionals to tell how mind works without any interpretation or bias. This died out as some processes are subconscious, also no way to test these claims. It’s only use is giving ideas of what we can study
Behaviorist movement
Record experience and outputs to create a learning history. Completely ignores brain. How we change in response to stimuli of rewards and punishments. This is unreliable as we act how we interpret the situation, what does this stimuli mean to you?
Transcendental Method
Immanuel Kant created a way to study the mind by refusing to trust the mind . Start with the visible result and work backwards. Such as electrons aren’t visible but we found them by measuring their effects which are visible
Cognitive Psychology
Study mental processes indirectly through measuring the consequences. Relies on performance, response time, and neuroscience based tests.
What did Tolman state
Learning isn’t a change in behavior but an acquisition of knowledge, in the rat maze it took time
Gestalt Psychology Movement
The whole is greater than the parts, you cannot learn how we think just by studying individual components you must look at the whole picture. Therefor we must know mental processes to explain behavior
“Pass the Salt”
Proved why we must study inside this “black box”, you can ask to pass the salt a thousand different ways and each will have the same output, but for others it may be different. We can’t just ignore the brain entirely because everyone interpretation is different and we need to know why
What did Chompsky state
If reinforced is the only way we learn than why can we build our own sentences
Neuropsychology and how does clinical work
Study of brain structures and functions. In clinical cases they understand these structures by analyzing cases where that specific area is damaged. Can’t always be used since you have to wait till someone is injured in that one spot.
Neuroimaging
Produce precise 3-D pictures of the brain that help us find shape size and position and find function through measuring activity levels.
Neuroimaging Techniques
CT scans- old tool for structural imaging. 3D x-ray. Not as precise as a MRI but it’s cheaper so we use it
PET scans- old functional imaging. Intro tracer substance with low radioactivity and scan watches what tissues use the substance
MRI- New primary structural imaging, uses magnetic properties of atoms to show tissue
FMRI- new primary functional images. measures oxygen content in blood flow of each brain region
EEG- Measures electrical pulses of neurons, it usually detects a rhythm and then measures change. Can’t localize it but can generally see changes to a millisecond. Usually used for sleep studies
ERG- EEG but with the eyes
TMS- Creates a temporary lesion with a pulse. Used to see if certain areas are associated with certain functions
Neurons
Nerve cells (billions in our brains) they release neurotransmitters that tell to activate or deactivate, they can hit dendrites that are meters apart.
Capgras Syndrome
Can recognize people but convinced they aren’t real. You look like, sound like, and act like him but your not him. We have two parts to recognize people, factual appraisal (what they look, sound, and act like) and emotional appraisal (familiarity). Capgras lacks the emotional appraisal
Motor Areas
Departure points- signals leave cortex and control muscle
Arrival points- Receive info from senses
Localized Function
Every region has it’s own specific function
Projection Areas
Term from map making as it’s a strip of tissue that maps out what controls what. The most sensitive regions will get the most room
Sensory Areas
Skin senses to goes to parietal lobe, somatosensory cortex. When electrocuted patients report having a tingling sensation
Primary Projection Areas
Motor- is near the rear frontal lobe, fingers have large area where as shoulders have less (twitch). Each body part has own region
Sensory-Somatosensory area behind motor projection area (feel tingle). Each body part has own region S1
Auditory- Temporal Lobes (hear clicks and buzz) Each frequency has own region A1
Vision- Occipital Lobe (see lights and patterns). Each part of field has own region. V1, has many centers as 40% of conterx is vision
Sensory and motor in total only make up 25% of the cerebral cortex
Contralateral
When right side is probed the left side reacts. Every part of brain is like this
Association Cortex
The remaining Prefrontal cortex that connects the sensory and motor areas. It refers to a broad region that we now know can be further divided
Lesions in what lobes do what?
Frontal lobe- Apraxia (voluntary movement)
Occipital or rear parietal- Agnosies (can’t recognize objects)
Parietal lobe- Neglect Syndrome ( ignore 1/2 of the visual world
Lateral Fissure- Can’t produce language
Frontmost Frontal Lobe- can’t learn new strategies just rely on habit
What role does vision have?
It is the most dominant sense that has the most dedicated brain area and if any other information conflicts with visual info you will always trust vision. This is why ventriloquism works and why mirror boxes work
Photoreceptors Path
Light produced by lamps, sun, etc, is reflected into the eye. First it hits the cornea, iris/ pupil, the lens, rods and cones, than the retina. then bipolar to Ganglion through optic nerve into thalamus then Lateral geniculate nucleus then primary vision projection area, then split into different pathways
Job of each part of the eye
Lens adjusts incoming light similar to a camera lens, muscles tighten to bulge lens to see close, muscles relax to see flatten lens to see far away (far away. A lot of movement is for close
Rods are sensitive to low level light to help see in the dark, distinguishes different light intensities. Most rods are on the sides
Cones are sensitive to color difference, there are 3 types that are all sensitive to different wave lengths. It is also able to see fine detail and acuity. Most cones are at the fovea
Cornea- outermost part of the eye is responsible for focus, Lasik surgery tackles cornea issues (close up)
Optic Nerve- axon terminals of ganglion cells, carry information to brain but have no photoreceptors therefor it is a blind spot. Full of P cells and M cells
LGN- Relay center, intermediate step for all senses except for smell and it’s located in the thalamus
Light Waves
Electromagnetic energy, wavelength= color, height=brightness
Lateral Inhibition
When cells are stimulated they restrain activity in neighboring cells, so the middle cells are weaker than the edge cells which creates edge enhancement and allows us to have defined outlines. This causes the contrast effect which makes dark appear darker and light appear lighter in illusions
Single Cell Recording
You can record the pattern of electrical charges of one neuron, each response is the same (all or none law) yet the firing rate changes. As learn what makes a neuron fire more or less we learn what it’s job is. Also allowed us to learn receptive fields, each neuron has a different visual field that affects the firing rate, some stimuli increase other’s decrease. The receptive fields get more specific for extrastriata areas (V2, 3, etc).
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Found out that specialized neurons exist. Such as center-surround cells where cells is “on” in central light and “off” in surrounding light. When light hits both it same as when no stimulus occured. Also edge detectors that fire maximum at different angled lines (always fire to all lines just prefer one).
Divide and Conquer
Different cells in different regions serve a different purpose
Parallel Processing and benefits
Many different steps occur simultaneously, all specialized neurons fire at once.
It allows for speed, mutual influences (can’t understand if it’s 3D unless it moves and vice versa)
Within optic nerves parts and function
P Cells- parvocellular cells- spatial analysis and details. Ventral
M-Cells- Magnocellular cells motion and depth Dorsal
What (Ventral) system- Occipital lobe goes to temporal, identify what an object is
Where (Dorsal) system- Occipital goes to parietal, where it is
Binding Problem
Reuniting Elements that are addressed in different systems into one coherent motion. Combining the where and what pathway
Binding Problem Solutions
- Spatial Position -where object is, color, movement
- Special Rhythms- How and what neurons fire simultaneously. Neural Synchrony- if neurons fire simultaneously they are the same object
- Attention- when overload then a conjunction error occurs and you mistake what features are bound together
Bottom-up processing
Visual features to recognition to knowledge
Top-down processing
Knowledge before visual feathers. Expectation will carry over in quick split second decisions (phone seen as a gun). Entirely top-down is a hallucination.
Figure Ground organization
What’s object what’s background, completely dependent on the viewer but we just don’t notice the interpretation
Gestalt Organization (5)
Similarity- group alike objects
Proximity- group close objects
Good Continuation- Continuous objects even if parts are hidden
Closure- If object is missing side- still in tact
Simplicity- Interpret forms as simply as possible
Interposition- if object in front it’s closer
Proximity- close objects are grouped together
How we organize attributes
Collect visual features and raw data
Go beyond and figure out how the form is laid out, figure v foreground.
Interpretation
Not only goes first or second, they all occur in parallel processing and work together
Constancy
Perceptual constancy- perceive constant properties of objects even when our viewing circumstances changes
Size constancy- Despite viewing difference in distance we still correctly perceive size
Shape- No matter what angle we see shapes at we still see the same shape
Brightness- unconscious judgement of surrounding light to tell how bright an object is
How do we achieve constancy
Relationships within our retina image of size of surrounding objects. Or do we use distance and constantly calculate for size. Double distance= 1/2 size. 10 ft away and 4 mm of retina= 40, 20 feet away and 2 mm of retina= 40 still
Binocular Cue
Binocular Disparity where eyes look from different POVs, slight different views and depending on how different the places are on each lens this will create a depth effect
Pictorial Cues (4)
Monocular Cues that are exploited by artists to create fake depth
Interposition- Block view of object with another
Linear perspective- Lines converge as they get far
Shadow- one of most powerful
Texture gradiant- things get more blurry far away
Monocular Cues of Depth (2)
Motion Parallax- near by objects will move more than far away ones when you move your head
Optic Flow- Visual fields changes as go forward
Stereovision
eyes fuse together 2 different images and creates binocular disparity. VR and 3D movies work with each lens having a slightly different view. Won’t work with those with ocular dominance who rely on one eye more than other
Educated Eye
Is a myth. You cannot be trained to see more in a glance or to see the in the dark. You may be more observant and notice the important things but the biological component can’t be changed just your knowledge can.
DF
Diagnosed with Appreceptive agnosia. He can see shape color and position but he can’t put it together to see whole. For example he can draw a clock from memory but he can’t draw it from appearance.
Associative Agnosia
Can see but can’t recognize the object. A glove is a continuous surface with 5 outpouchings. Don’t know if shoe or foot, wife or hat.
Redudancy
We use all of our cues as different cues work best in different conditions
Agnosia 3 types
Inability to recognize something. 3 types: inanimate, animate, and faces.
Tachistoscopic Presentations
Studies where a tachistoscope presents stimuli momentarily followed with a post-stimulus mask (random pattern or letters). This mask is necessary to interrupt any continued processing
Word Superiority Effect
Recognize a letter if it is in a common word, or reasonable letter string (well-formedness- how well it conforms to English laws)
Priming
Recognize a word better if it is a common object or word (frequency priming m’s= Mcdonalds) or if it is the 2nd time viewing it (repetition priming and magicians)
Fonts effect on reading
People read less clear fonts as less intelligent as they can’t read as fluently therefor we blame the authors and assume they didn’t write as fluently. However, less clear fonts are better remembered because they need more engagement. Also capitals are slower to read because lowercase allows different letters to have identified blocks
Detectors Processes
Each detector has an activation level, if the detector is warmed up (seen before or seen often) it will be easily set off. The first detector is a feature detector, a letter detector, a bigram detector and then the word detector. This chain is called a feature net.
Feature Net pros and cons
It allows for us to fill in words if we missed a letter due to frequency and recency, if one feature is seen it will activate all letter detectors but only some bigrams will be used. However, this can cause errors as CQRN will often be seen as CORN but it’s usually ok as CORN is never seen as CQRN
Distributed Knowledge
You must have previous knowledge in order to activate a bigram as it’s not just one bigram but the analyzing of all of them and comparing which is most likely
Distributed Representation
Knowledge is distributed across a network and only detectable when the entire network functions, there is no actual inferences or knowledge, everything is active and we go through all of them to see which is right
McClelland and Rumelhart Model
Alternative to feature net, it is the idea that there are no bigram detectors just excitatory and inhibitory connections. This allows for bidirectional stimulation (letters excite words, words, excite letters, letters excite letters). Knowing it’s TRIP causes a missing T to go activated and even though it wasn’t stimulated knowing the word is TRIP can set T off.
Recognition by components model (RBC)
Geons- geometric ions that we see building blocks with, only need 30 to make every object in the world. Feature detectors (edges, angles) activate geons, activate geon assemblies, finally the object model. In this model geons are view-poijnt independent and can be recognized from anywhere
Multiple View object recognition
People have memories of objects and we can only recognize things if it matches a remembered perspective. If it doesn’t we must rotate image and delay the recognition. This model is viewpoint dependent. Lines to corners and notches, to whole object. Supported how in what pathway some neurons are object and view specific
RBC or multiple-view?
Maybe both are right, some tissue is sensitive to viewpoint. Categorization (is this a cup) is view-point independent and identification (is this a cup I’ve used before) is viewpoint dependent
Prosopagnosia
Can tell what the face is (old, female, etc) yet can’t identify whose it belongs too including themselves. If an avid bird watcher can’t differentiate birds. There fusiform face area doesn’t work, we argue this area is just for faces or face like but we don’t know
Super-recognizers
People who can recognize faces extremely well
Faces are strongly dependent on
Orientation, they are powerful inversion which means we can’t recognize upside down faces and if a face is inverted we can’t tell if eyes or mouth is upside down.
Holistic Recognition- to see a face we need to see the overall configuration not just parts, features can’t be considered out of context just their relationship with other features that guides recognition. We are also more influenced by outer features than inner
Composite effect
If we combine two different faces top and bottom we will see it as one whole new face.
Priming needs when giving “it’s a word you can eat”
If given a clue “it’s a word you eat” we need to
1. Understand words in instruction
2. Understand the relationship “words you eat” not “Words eat you”
3. Know facts about words” what can I eat”
Information Processing Model
Carefully manipulate the inputs to see about the outputs
