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Biology 102 (Dr. Sphon) > Test 3 (Chapters 8-10) > Flashcards

Test 3 (Chapters 8-10) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the function of arteries?

A
  • Carry blood away from the heart

- transport blood under high pressure

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2
Q

What is the function of capillaries?

A

exchange solutes and water with cells of the body

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3
Q

What are the functions of veins?

A

return blood to the heart

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4
Q

What is the structure of arteries?

A

thick walled and three layers

  • innermost: endothelium
  • middle: smooth muscle
  • outer: connective tissue
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5
Q

What is the path of blood flow?

A

Heart to arteries to arterioles and then to capillaries

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6
Q

What are arterioles?

A

smallest arteries

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7
Q

What is the function of precapillary sphincters?

A

control of blood flow into capillaries

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8
Q

What is vasodilation?

A

increases the blood flow into capillaries

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9
Q

What is vasoconstriction?

A

decreases blood flow to capillaries

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10
Q

What is the structure of capillaries?

A
  • smallest blood vessels
  • thin walled: one cell layer thick
  • porous
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11
Q

What are capillary beds?

A

extensive networks of capillaries

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12
Q

What is the function of capillary beds?

A

selective exchange of substances with the interstitial fluid

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13
Q

What is the structure of veins?

A
  • three layers, thin walled
  • larger lumen than arteries
  • high distensibiltiy
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14
Q

What are the functions of veins

A
  • carry blood toward heart
  • blood flow (capillaries-venules-veins-heart)
  • serve as blood volume reservoir
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15
Q

What are the mechanisms of blood return?

A
  • contraction of skeletal muscles
  • one-way valves
  • pressure change associated with breathing
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16
Q

What is the function of the lymphatic system?

A
  • maintains blood volume

- also functions as immune system

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17
Q

What is the structure of the lymphatic system?

A
  • blind-ended capillaries
  • lymphatic vessels
  • lymph derived from interstitial fluid
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18
Q

What is the heart surrounded by?

A

A fibrous sac called the pericardium

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19
Q

What is the epicardium?

A

thin layer of epithelial and connective tissue

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20
Q

What is the myocardium?

A

Thick layer of cardiac muscle

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21
Q

What is the endocardium?

A

thin layer of endothelial tissue

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22
Q

What are the four chambers of the heart?

A
  • two atria

- two ventricles

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23
Q

What is the function of valves?

A

prevent backflow

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24
Q

How many valves are in the heart?

A
  • 2 atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and bicuspid)

- 2 semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic)

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25
Q

How is blood oxygenated?

A
  1. Blood goes to right atrium
  2. Then to through the right atrioventricular valve to the right ventricle
  3. Then through the pulmonary semilunar valve to the pulmonary trunk and lungs
  4. Blood is oxygenated in pulmonary capillaries
  5. oxygenated blood travels through pulmonary valve to the left atrium
  6. Then through the left atrioventricular valve to the left ventricle
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26
Q

How is oxygenated blood delivered to the tissues?

A
  1. From left ventricle through the aortic semilunar valve to the aorta
  2. Through branching arteries and arterioles to tissues
  3. Through arterioles to capillaries
  4. Then to venules and veins
  5. Then to the vena cava and right atrium
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27
Q

What occurs during atrial systole?

A
  • both atria contract
  • AV valves open and semilunar valve shut
  • ventricles fill
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28
Q

What happens during ventricular systole?

A
  • Both ventricles contract

- AV valves close, semilunar valves open

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29
Q

What happens during diastole?

A
  • Atria and ventricles relax

- semilunar valves close

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30
Q

What happens during the lub sound of a heart beat?

A

closing of both AV valves during ventricular systole

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31
Q

What happens during the dub sound of a heart beat?

A

closing of both semilunar valves during ventricular diastole

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32
Q

What are the causes of heart murmurs?

A

blood flow is disturbed (may be sign of a valve problem)

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33
Q

What is the function of the SA node?

A
  • cardiac pacemaker
  • initiates heart beat
  • pace can be modified by nervous system
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34
Q

What is the function of the AV node?

A

relays impulse

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35
Q

What is the function of AV bundles and Purkinje Fibers?

A

carry impulse to ventricles

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36
Q

What is the function of an EKG?

A

Tracks electrical activity of the heart

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37
Q

What is a P wave?

A

impulse across atria

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38
Q

What is the QRS complex?

A

spread of impulse down the septum, around ventricles and Purkinje Fibers

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39
Q

What is the T wave?

A

end of electrical activity in the brain

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40
Q

What can EKGs detect?

A
  • arrhythmias

- ventricular fibrillation

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41
Q

What is blood pressure?

A

the force that blood exerts on the wall of vessels

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42
Q

What is systolic pressure?

A

highest pressure as blood is ejected during ventricular systole

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43
Q

What is diastolic pressure?

A

lowest pressure during ventricular diastole

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44
Q

How is blood pressure measured?

A

By a sphygmomanometer

systolic <80 mmHg

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45
Q

What is hypertension (silent killer)?

A

High blood pressure

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46
Q

What is hypotension?

A

Low blood pressure

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47
Q

What are the signs of hypotension?

A
  • dizziness

- fainting

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48
Q

What are the causes of hypotension?

A
  • orthostatic
  • severe burns
  • blood loss
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49
Q

What are baroreceptors?

A

pressure receptors in the aorta and carotid arteries

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50
Q

How is blood pressure regulated?

A
  1. Blood pressure rises, vessels stretched
  2. Signals are sent to the cardiovascular center in the brain
  3. heart is signaled to lower heart rate and force contraction
  4. arterioles vasodilate, increasing blood flow to tissues
  5. combined effect lowers blood pressure
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51
Q

What is the function of sympathetic nerves?

A

constrict blood vessels, raising blood pressure

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52
Q

What is the function of the parasympathetic nerves?

A

dilate blood vessels, decreasing blood pressure

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53
Q

What hormone regulates blood pressure?

A

epinephrine

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54
Q

What dictates local blood flow?

A

local requirements

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55
Q

What is the function of exercise on blood pressure?

A

increased blood flow and cardiac output

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56
Q

What is angina pectoris?

A

narrowed coronary arteries impair blood flow (no damage)

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57
Q

What is a myocardial infarction (heart attack)?

A

permanent cardiac damage due to blockage in a coronary artery

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58
Q

What is congestive heart failure?

A

decrease in pumping efficiency

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59
Q

What is an embolism?

A

blockage of blood vessels

60
Q

What is a stroke?

A

impaired blood flow to the brain

61
Q

What are barriers to the entry of pathogens (disease producing microorganisms)?

A
  • skin
  • stomach acid
  • tears
  • vomiting
62
Q

What are nonspecific defense mechanisms?

A

phagocytosis and inflammation

63
Q

What are specific defense mechanisms?

A

antibodies and T cells (immune response)

64
Q

What are living organism pathogens?

A
  • bacteria: unicellular prokaryotes
  • fungus: unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes
  • parasites: unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes
65
Q

What pathogens are nonliving infectious “particles”?

A

viruses and prions

66
Q

What are the characteristics of bacteria?

A
  • prokaryotic
  • single-celled
  • use a variety of resources for growth and reproduction
67
Q

What are some bacterial infections?

A
  • pneumonia
  • tonsillitis
  • tuberculosis
  • botulism
  • toxic shock syndrome
  • Lyme disease
68
Q

How are bacterial infections treated?

A

antibiotics

69
Q

What are characteristics of viruses?

A
  • small
  • non-living (open to debate)
  • unable to reproduce outside a cell
  • no metabolic activity
70
Q

What is the structure of a virus?

A
  • DNA or RNA

- Nucleic acid is surrounded by a protein coat

71
Q

What are some viral diseases?

A
  • AIDS
  • hepatitis
  • encephalitis
  • rabies
  • influenza
  • colds
  • warts
  • chicken pox
72
Q

What are prions?

A

Normal brain proteins that are not folded correctly (infectious proteins)

73
Q

What occurs in result of miss-folding proteins?

A

self-propagating filling and disabling the cell with protein debris (resists cooking, freezing, and drying)

74
Q

What are two forms of prions?

A
  • Mad cow disease (BSE)

- Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)

75
Q

What is transmissibility?

A

how easily a pathogen is passed from person to person

76
Q

What are the modes of transmission?

A
  • respiratory
  • fecal-oral
  • body fluids
77
Q

What is virulence?

A

how much damage is caused by infection

78
Q

What are the function of the Lymphatic System?

A
  • maintenance of blood volume in cardiovascular system
  • transport of fat and fat-soluble material from digestive system
  • filtration of foreign material to defend against infection
79
Q

What are the components of the lymphatic system?

A
  • lymphatic vessels: transport lymph
  • lymph nodes: cleanse the lymph
  • spleen: cleanses the blood
  • thymus gland: facilitates maturation of T lymphocytes
  • tonsil and adenoids: protect throat
80
Q

What keeps pathogens out?

A
  • skin: effective deterrent
  • tears and saliva: contain lysosome
  • ear wax and mucous: entraps microorganisms
  • stomach: inhibits microorganisms
  • vagina: inhibits SOME microorganisms
  • vomiting, urination, defecation: remove microorganisms
  • resident bacteria: outcompete pathogens
81
Q

What are phagocytic cells?

A

WBCs that surround and engulf invading bacteria (neutrophils)

82
Q

What are natural killer cells?

A

type of lymphocyte that attacks tumor cells and virus infected cells

83
Q

What are complement proteins?

A

lyse invading bacteria

84
Q

What are interferons?

A

antiviral proteins

85
Q

What are characteristics of immune response?

A

-recognizes and targets specific pathogens and foreign substances
-remembers initial exposure and responds more quickly and aggressively on subsequent exposures
(can distinguish between healthy and abnormal cells along with self cells and foreign cells

86
Q

What is an antigen?

A

any substance that triggers an immune response

87
Q

What are MHC proteins?

A

self-antigens that are on human cell surfaces enabling recognition of “self” (distinguish between “self” and “nonself”)

88
Q

What is the function of B lymphocytes?

A
  • antibody mediated immunity (antibodies that bind with and neutralize specific antigens)
  • active against viruses, bacteria, and soluble foreign molecules
89
Q

What is the function of T lymphocytes?

A
  • cell mediated immunity (directly attack foreign cells)

- active against parasites, viruses, fungi, intracellular bacteria, cancer cells, and cells with “nonself” MHC

90
Q

How are B cells activated?

A

-when they recognize an antigen (divide into memory cells and plasma cells)

91
Q

What is the function of memory cells?

A

store info for future immune response

92
Q

What is the function of plasma cells?

A

actively secrete antibodies that will bind to antigens

93
Q

What are the classes of antibodies?

A
  • IgG: most prevalent in blood
  • IgM: first antibody produced in immune response
  • IgA: found in body secretions (even breast milk)
  • IgD: unclear function
  • IgE: key role in allergic reactions
94
Q

What are the origins of T cells?

A
  • originate from stem cells in bone marrow

- mature in thymus

95
Q

What are types of T Cells?

A
  • CD4 T Cells (memory and helper T cells)

- CD8 T Cells (cytoxic and suppressor T cells)

96
Q

T Cells must be presented with what?

A

Antigen presenting cells (APC)

97
Q

What do APC’s include?

A
  • Macrophages

- B cells

98
Q

What are the functions of Helper T cells?

A
  • secrete cytokines (stimulate other immune system cells)
  • play a key role in directing the immune response
  • target of HIV infection
99
Q

What is the function of Cytoxic T cells?

A

directly attack and destroy abnormal cells and foreign cells

100
Q

What is the function of Memory T Cells?

A

reactivate during later exposures

101
Q

What are the characteristics of primary immune response?

A
  • lag time of 3-6 days for antibody production
  • peak at 10-12 days
  • occurs on first exposure to antigen
102
Q

What are the characteristics of secondary immune response?

A
  • occurs on second and subsequent exposure to antigen
  • lag time is hours
  • peaks in days
103
Q

What is breathing?

A

moving air in and out of lungs

104
Q

What is external respiration?

A

gas exchange between air and blood in the lungs

105
Q

What is internal respiration?

A

gas exchange between blood and tissues

106
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

oxygen use to produce ATP, carbon dioxide as waste

107
Q

What are the parts of the upper respiratory tract?

A
  • nose, nasal passages

- pharynx

108
Q

What are the parts of the lower respiratory tract?

A
  • larynx (voice box)
  • trachea
  • bronchi and bronchioles
  • lungs
  • alveoli (gas exchange occurs here; air filled sacs)
109
Q

What are the functions of the upper respiratory tract?

A
  • passageway for respiration
  • has receptors for smell
  • filters larger foreign material from incoming air, inhaled microorganisms are entrapped in mucous
  • moistens and warms incoming air
  • has resonating chambers for voice
110
Q

What are the functions of the larynx?

A
  • maintains open airway
  • routes food and air properly
  • assists in sound production
111
Q

What is the function of the trachea?

A

transports air to and from lungs

112
Q

What is the function of the bronchi?

A

branch into lungs

113
Q

What is the function of the lungs?

A

transport air to alveoli for gas exchange

114
Q

What is the function of the mucous?

A

entraps microorganisms

115
Q

What is the function of the cilia?

A

push microorganisms and mucous up and out of respiratory tract (smoking damages this)

116
Q

What are respiratory tract defenses?

A
  • mucous
  • cilia
  • cough reflex
117
Q

How do bronchioles terminate?

A

in clusters of alveoli

118
Q

What is the lungs surrounded by and where are the lungs located

A

surrounded by pleural membranes and located in the thoracic cavity

119
Q

What is the function of pulmonary capillaries?

A

bring blood and air into close contact

120
Q

What occurs during step 1 of the breathing cycle (relaxed state)?

A

diaphragm and intercostal muscles relaxed

121
Q

What occur during step 2 of the breathing cycle (inspiration)?

A
  • diaphragm contracts which pulls muscle down
  • intercostal muscles contract which elevates chest wall and expands the volume of the chest
  • lowers pressure in lungs, pulling in air
122
Q

What occurs during step 3 of the breathing cycle (expiration)?

A
  • muscles relax
  • diaphragm resumes dome shape
  • intercostal muscles allow chest to lower which causes an increase of pressure in chest and expulsion of air
123
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a single breath

124
Q

What is dead space volume?

A

volume of air that remains in the airways and does not participate in gas exchange

125
Q

What is vital capacity?

A

maximal volume that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation

126
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

A

volume of air that can be inhaled beyond the tidal volume

127
Q

What is expiratory reserve volume?

A

volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled beyond the tidal volume

128
Q

What is residual volume?

A

volume of air remaining in lungs even after a forceful maximal expiration

129
Q

How does a gas diffuse?

A

ALWAYS down its partial pressure gradient from higher to lower partial pressure

130
Q

Where is 98% of oxygen in blood carried?

A

bound to hemoglobin molecules in RBCs

131
Q

Where is 2% of O2 dissolved?

A

in the plasma

132
Q

How is 70% of CO2 transported?

A

converted to bicarbonate and transported in plasma

133
Q

Where is 10% of CO2 dissolved?

A

plasma

134
Q

What does 20% of CO2 bind to for transport?

A

hemoglobin

135
Q

Where is the respiratory center located?

A

medulla oblongata

136
Q

What are the functions of the respiratory center?

A
  • establishes basic breathing pattern
  • neurons in medulla generate impulses every 4-5 seconds
  • stimulates intercostal muscles and diaphragm
137
Q

How does the body monitor CO2 levels?

A
  • receptors in medulla monitor CO2 levels indirectly
  • receptors monitor H+ ions in CSF
  • high Pco2 in arterial blood will cause an increase in H+ ions in the CSF which signals medulla to increase respiration rate (primary regulator of respirations)
138
Q

How is Po2 monitored?

A
  • becomes active if Po2 falls by at least 20%

- will increase rate and depth of breathing in response to sufficiently lowered arterial Po2

139
Q

What is the rate and depth of normal breathing determined by?

A

the need to get rid of CO2

140
Q

Where does conscious control of breathing reside?

A

cerebral cortex

141
Q

What are the functions of conscious control of breathing?

A
  • modify breath to speak and sing

- able to hold breath temporarily (can’t override automatic controls in medulla)

142
Q

What is asthma?

A

spasmodic contraction of bronchi

(caused by episodic allergic responses and can be controlled by bronchodilators and corticosteroids)

143
Q

What is emphysema?

A

breathlessness due to decreased surface area for gas exchange (alveoli permanently impaired)

144
Q

What is bronchitis?

A

inflammation of bronchi (acute or chronic and is usually caused by smoking or air pollution)

145
Q

What is cystic fibrosis?

A

abnormally thick mucous in lungs that impedes air flow

frequent pulmonary infections; inherited condition

Biology 102 (Dr. Sphon) (5 decks)

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