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Biology 102 (Dr. Sphon) > Test 2 (Chapters 5-7) > Flashcards

Test 2 (Chapters 5-7) Flashcards

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0
Q

What are the 6 functions of bone?

A
  • support
  • protection
  • movement
  • blood cell formation
  • mineral storage (calcium and phosphate)
  • fat storage
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1
Q

What are the three types of connective tissue?

A
  • bones
  • ligaments
  • cartilage
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2
Q

What is compact bone?

A

Forms the shaft and ends; contains marrow space

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3
Q

What is spongy bone?

A

Trabecular

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4
Q

What are the bone cells?

A
  • osteoblasts
  • osteocytes
  • osteoclasts
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5
Q

What are the types of bone?

A
  • long
  • flat
  • irregular
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6
Q

What does the osteon/Haversian system perform?

A

Cellular arrangement

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7
Q

What is the shaft called?

A

Diaphysis

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8
Q

What is the function of cartilage?

A

Support

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9
Q

What are the types of cartilage?

A
  • fibrocartilage (spinal cord)
  • Hyaline cartilage (connects ribs)
  • elastic cartilage (ears)
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10
Q

What is the function of ligaments?

A

Attach bone to bone

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11
Q

What are ligaments made of?

A

Dense fibrous connective tissue

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12
Q

What do babies have in early fetal development in regards to bones?

A

Cartilage model of their bones (formed by chondroblasts/cartilage forming cells)

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13
Q

What occurs with bones in later fetal development?

A

Osteoblasts replace cartilage with bone

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14
Q

What happens with bones in childhood?

A

Primary and secondary ossification sites formed

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15
Q

What occurs with bones in adolescence?

A

Elongation at growth plates

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16
Q

What are hormones doing to bones in preadolescence?

A

Growth hormones stimulate bone lengthening

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17
Q

What are hormones doing to bones in early adolescence?

A

Estrogen and testosterone stimulate bone lengthening

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18
Q

What do hormones do to bones in late adolescence?

A

Estrogen and testosterone cause replacement of cartilage growth plates with bone

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19
Q

What are chondroblasts?

A

Cartilage forming cells

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20
Q

What are osteoblasts?

A

Young bone-forming cells

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21
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

Mature bone cells

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22
Q

What are osteoclasts?

A

Dissolving cells

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23
Q

Changes in shape, size, and strength of bone depend on what?

A
  • diet
  • exercise
  • age
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24
Q

Bone cells are regulated by what hormones?

A
  • parathyroid hormone (PTH): removes calcium from bone

- calcitonin: adds calcium to bone

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25
Q

How does a bone repair?

A

By a hematoma and callus formation

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26
Q

How many bones are in the human body?

A

206

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27
Q

What bones make up the appendicular skeleton?

A
  • skull
  • vertebral column
  • sternum
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28
Q

What bones make up the axial skeleton?

A
  • pectoral girdle
  • pelvic girdle
  • limbs
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29
Q

What are the C1 and C2 vertebrae called?

A
  • C1: atlas

- C2: axis

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30
Q

What bones makes up the pectoral girdle (shoulder)?

A
  • clavicle

- scapula

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31
Q

What bones makes up the pelvic girdle (hips)?

A
  • coxal bones
  • sacrum
  • public symphysis
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32
Q

What bones make up the arms?

A
  • humerus
  • radius
  • ulna
  • wrist
  • hand bones
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33
Q

What bones make up the legs?

A
  • femur
  • tibia
  • fibula
  • ankle
  • foot bones
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34
Q

What are joints classified by?

A

Degree of movement

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35
Q

What are fibrous joints?

A

Immovable joints (fontanels)

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36
Q

What are cartilaginous joints?

A

Slightly moveable joints (cartilage connection: backbone)

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37
Q

What are synovial joints?

A

Freely moveable joints

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38
Q

What are joint capsules made of?

A
  • synovial membrane

- hyaline cartilage

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39
Q

What does the synovial membrane secrete?

A

Synovial fluid

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40
Q

What does hyaline cartilage act as?

A

A cushion for bones

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41
Q

What are the types of synovial joints?

A
  • hinge joint

- ball and socket joint

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42
Q

What are the functions of tendons?

A

Connect muscle to bone

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43
Q

What is a leg sprain?

A

Stretches or torn ligaments

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44
Q

What is bursitis and tendonitis?

A

Inflammation

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45
Q

What is arthritis?

A

Inflammation of the joints (osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis)

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46
Q

What is osteoporosis?

A

Excessive bone loss

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47
Q

What is the principal function of muscle?

A

Contraction: shortens distance between bones (moves bones)

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48
Q

What are the two muscle groups?

A
  • synergistic (work together)

- antagonistic (groups appose each other)

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49
Q

What are muscle fascicles?

A

Bundles of muscle fibers wrapped with connective tissue

50
Q

How is muscle fibers described?

A
  • long, tube shaped
  • multinucleate
  • packed with myofibrils
51
Q

What do myofibrils contain?

A
  • actin

- myosin

52
Q

What is a sarcomere?

A

Contractive unit

53
Q

What does myosin form?

A

Thick filaments

54
Q

What does actin form?

A

Thin filaments

55
Q

What are Z lines?

A

Attachment points for sarcomeres

56
Q

What does the arrangement of filaments give rise to?

A

Striated appearance of skeletal muscle

57
Q

Where is acetylcholine released from during muscle contraction?

A

It’s released from the motor neuron at the neuromuscular junction

58
Q

Where are electrical impulses transmitted along during muscle contraction?

A

Transmitted along T tubules

59
Q

Where is calcium released from during muscle contraction?

A

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

60
Q

What is muscle contraction?

A

Formation of cross bridges between thin and thick filaments

61
Q

What does calcium bind with during muscle contraction?

A

Troponin

62
Q

What does troponin cause during muscle contraction?

A

The tropomyosin complex shifts position exposing myosin binding cites

63
Q

What do the now exposed myosin heads form cross-bridges with?

A

Actin

64
Q

What are the actin filaments pulled toward?

A

Center of the sarcomere

65
Q

What occurs during muscle relaxation?

A

Nerve activation ends and contraction ends

66
Q

During muscle relaxation what is pumped back into the SR?

A

Calcium

67
Q

What happens during muscle relaxation after calcium is pumped back into the SR?

A

Calcium is removed from the troponin which then covers the myosin binding sites (no calcium=no cross bridge)

68
Q

What is the principle source of energy?

A

ATP

69
Q

What is ATP require for?

A
  • muscle contraction

- muscle relaxation

70
Q

How is ATP restored?

A
  • creatine phosphate
  • stored glycogen
  • aerobic metabolism of glucose, fatty acids, and other high energy molecules
71
Q

What happens in isotonic contractions?

A
  • muscle shortens

- movement occurs

72
Q

What happens in an isometric contraction?

A
  • muscle does not shorten

- no movement

73
Q

What influences force?

A

The degree of nerve activation

74
Q

What is a motor unit (smallest functional unit of muscle contraction)?

A

The motor neurons and all the muscle cells it controls

75
Q

What is muscle tension?

A

Mechanical force that muscles generate when they contract

76
Q

What is muscle tension determined by?

A
  • motor unit size
  • number of active motor units
  • frequency of stimulation
77
Q

What is the all-or-none principal?

A

Individual muscle cells are always contracted or relaxed

78
Q

What is muscle tone?

A

Whole muscles maintain intermediate level of force

79
Q

What is recruitment?

A

Activation of additional motor units increases muscle tone

80
Q

What is a muscle twitch?

A

A complete cycle of contraction and relaxation in response to stimulus

81
Q

How can a muscle twitch be observed

A

By a myogram (lab recording of muscle activity)

82
Q

What are the different periods of muscle twitch?

A
  • latent period
  • contraction
  • relaxation
  • summation
  • tetanic contraction
83
Q

What are the two types of muscle fibers?

A
  • slow twitch: endurance, long duration contraction, contain myoglobin
  • fast twitch: strength, white muscle, short duration contractions
84
Q

What happens during strength training?

A

It is short and intense and builds fast-twitch myofibrils (resistance training)

85
Q

What happens during aerobic training?

A
  • builds endurance

- increases blood supply to muscle cells

86
Q

How do cardiac and smooth muscle work?

A
  • involuntary (can contract on their own without nerve stimulation)
  • respond to stimulation from the autonomic nervous system (can modify degree of contraction)
87
Q

What is the speed of the 3 muscles (cardiac, skeletal, and smooth)?

A
  • skeletal: fastest
  • cardiac: moderate
  • smooth: very slow (partially contracted at all times; can never wear out)
88
Q

How does cardiac muscle appear?

A

Striated because of the sarcomere arrangement of thick and thin filaments

89
Q

How does smooth muscle appear?

A

No striations because the filaments are arranged in a criss-cross bundles (not sarcomeres)

90
Q

What are common diseases and disorders of the muscular system?

A
  • tetanus
  • muscle cramps
  • pulled muscles
  • fasciitis
91
Q

What are the functions of blood?

A
  • transportation (nutrients, waste, hormones)
  • regulation (temp, water volume, pH)
  • defense (against infections and bleeding
92
Q

What does plasma (55%) in the blood consist of?

A
  • water
  • proteins (albumins, globulins, clotting proteins)
  • hormones
  • nutrients and wastes
93
Q

What do formed elements (45%) in the blood consist of?

A
  • RBCs
  • WBCs
  • Platelets
94
Q

What is the function of RBCs?

A

Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

95
Q

What is the measurement of RBCs?

A
  • hematocrit

- hemoglobin

96
Q

What is the origin of RBCs?

A

Stem cells in the bone marrow

97
Q

What is the life span of RBCs?

A

120 days

98
Q

What controls the production of RBCs?

A

Erythropoietin

99
Q

What are the functions of WBCs?

A
  • protection from infection

- regulation of inflammatory reaction

100
Q

What are the two types of WBCs?

A
  • Granular (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils)

- Agranular (lymphocytes and monocytes)

101
Q

How are neutrophils described?

A
  • 60% of circulating WBCs

- first on scene to fight infections by engulfing microorganisms

102
Q

How are eosinophils described?

A
  • 2 to 4% of circulating WBCs
  • defends against large parasites (worms)
  • moderate severity of allergic reactions
103
Q

How are basophils described?

A
  • 0.5% of circulating WBCs

- Histamine in granules (role in inflammation)

104
Q

How are monocytes described?

A
  • 5% of circulating WBCs

- leave the blood and transform into macrophages

105
Q

How are lymphocytes described?

A
  • 30% of circulating WBCs
  • play large role in immune response
  • two types (B and T)
106
Q

What are platelets?

A
  • small cell fragments derived from megaharyocytes

- Important role in hemostasis (blood clotting)

107
Q

What are the three stages of hemostasis?

A
  • vascular spasm
  • platelet plug formation
  • coagulation
108
Q

What happens during the vascular spasm step in hemostasis?

A

Blood vessels constrict to reduce blood flow

109
Q

What happens during the platelet plug formation step of hemostasis?

A

Ruptured blood vessel seals

110
Q

What happens during the coagulation step of hemostasis?

A

Formation of a blood clot

  • complicated series of reactions
  • fibrinogen to fibrin
111
Q

What do A and B antigens have?

A

Surface markers on RBCs

112
Q

What are antibodies?

A
  • immune system protein

- directed against antigens

113
Q

What is anemia?

A

Reduction in oxygen-carrying capacity due to inadequate number of RBCs or inadequate hemoglobin

114
Q

What is iron deficiency anemia?

A

Anemia caused by inadequate intake or malabsorption of dietary iron

115
Q

What is hemorrhagic anemia?

A

Anemia caused by blood loss

116
Q

What is pernicious anemia?

A

Anemia caused by a B12 deficiency

117
Q

What is hemolytic anemia?

A

Anemia caused by the destruction of blood cells

118
Q

What is Leukemia?

A

A type of cancer caused by proliferation of WBCs

119
Q

What is multiple myeloma?

A

Form of cancer involving the proliferation of plasma cells in bone marrow

120
Q

What is mononucleosis?

A

Contagious Epstein-Barr virus infection of lymphocytes

121
Q

What is septicemia (blood poisoning)?

A

Bacteria proliferate in blood overwhelming the body’s defenses

122
Q

What is thrombocytopenia?

A
  • reduction in platelet number

- unusual bruising and bleeding

Biology 102 (Dr. Sphon) (5 decks)

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