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Biochemistry 1 > Test 3 > Flashcards

Test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Which general formula do carbohydrates derive their name from?

A

Cn(H2O)n

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2
Q

What functions do carbohydrates have?

A
  • Nutritional
  • Structural
  • Informational
  • Osmotic pressure regulation
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3
Q

Carbohydrate chemical characterization

A
  • Poly hydroxy aldehydes
  • Poly hydroxy ketones

Sugars with an aldehyde group are called aldoses

Sugars with a keto group are called ketoses

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4
Q

Classification of carbohydrates

A
  • Monosaccharides - one unit of carbohydrate
  • Disaccharides - two units of carbohydrates
  • Oligossacharides or Polysaccharides - multiple units of carbohydrates
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5
Q

What are enantiomers?

A

Pairs of stereoisomers.
Basically, mirror images that can’t be overlapped.
Assigned the letter D or L at the start of their name

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6
Q

What are D vs L designations based on?

A

Based on where the OH-group is. If its on the Left its an L- and if its on the right its a D-.

For sugars you look at c farthest from the aldehyde or keto group

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7
Q

Important monosaccharides (according to the presentation)

A
  • D-glyceraldehyde - simplest sugar
  • D-glucose - most important in diet
  • D-fructose - sweetest of all sugars
  • D-galactose - part of milk sugar
  • D-ribose - used in RNA
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8
Q

Hemiacetal vs hemiketal

A

Hemiacetal - forms from alcohol and aldehyde

Hemiketal - forms from alcohol and ketone

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9
Q

Carbohydrates in cyclic structures, a and b anomers.

A

a - when OH group is down compared to CH2OH (trans)

b - when OH group is up compared to CH2OH (cis)

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10
Q

Glycosidic bonds

A
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11
Q

Polysaccharides types and functions

A

Types:
- Homopolysaccharides - all 1 type of monomer e.g. glycogen, starch…

  • Heteropolysaccharides - different types of monomers - e.g. peptidoglycans…

Functions:
- glucose storage
- structure
- information
- osmotic regulation

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12
Q

Polysaccharide - glycogen

A
  • like amylopectin but even more highly branched and more compact
  • branches increase H2O-solubility
  • many nonreducing ends, but only one reducing end
  • ideal energy storage for glucose
  • can become so concentrated that it precipitates or crystallizes into glycogen granules
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13
Q

Polysaccharide - cellulose

A
  • most abundant polysaccharide
  • result in long fibers - for plant structure
  • animals can’t digest it, except ruminats and termites that have bacteria in their intestines that can digest it.
  • humans don’t digest it, and its often called “fiber”. It has no caloric value.
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14
Q

What is the result of glycolysis?

A

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2 NADH

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15
Q

How many enzyme catalyzed reactions are there in glycolysis?

A

there are 10 enzyme - catalyzed reactions in glycolysis

(optional)
1. Hexokinase transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose, making it more chemically reactive.

-> making Glucose-6-phosphate

  • irreversible
  1. Glucose-6-phosphate (aldose) is converted to

fructose 6-phosphate (ketose) by phosphohexose isomerase

  • reversible

–> this step is critical for the next two.

  1. Phosphofructokinase (PFK-1) transfers a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate to yield

fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

-key step for regulation in glycolysis

(PFK-1 is an allosteric enzyme)

  • irreversible
  1. Aldolase cleaves the sugar molecule into two different triose phosphates;
  • glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (aldose)

-Dihydroxyacetonephosphate (ketose)

  • reversible
  1. Triose phosphate isomerase converts the ketose from last step into the Aldose (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)

-reversible

  1. Beginning of payoff phase:

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) oxidise glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to

1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (very high energy)+ NADH

-reversible

  1. ATP is generated by substrate level phosphorylation, transferring phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, making it 3-phosphoglycerate

-reversible, but mostly to the right

  1. Phosphoglycerate mutase relocates the remaining phosphate group from C3 to C2, making it

2-Phosphoglycerate

-reversible

  • important intermediate is generated; 2,3-BPG

= the major allosteric regulator of haemoglobin

  1. Enolase causes a double bond to form in the substrate by extracting a water molecule, yielding Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a compound with a very high potential energy

-reversible

  1. Pyruvate kinase transfer the phosphate group from PEP to ADP forming pryuvate
  • requires K+ and either Mg2+ or Mn2+
  • irreversible
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16
Q

Two stages of glycolysis

A
  1. Energy investment phase (preparatory)
  • glucose molecule is inside cell, and must be kept there. –> produce glucose-phosphate, to destabilise the glucose and then split it
  1. Energy payoff phase
  • oxidise the split molecule, generating ATP and NADH
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17
Q

Regulation of glycolysis can occur via

A

a substrate limited - when concentrations of reactant and products in the cell are near equilibrium, then it is the availability of substrate which decides the rate of reaction

a enzyme limited - when the concentration of substrate and products are far away from the equilibrium, then it is activity of an enzyme that decides the rate of reaction. these reactions are the one which controls the flux of the overall pathway.

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18
Q

Where does the glucogenesis occur?

A

Mainly in the liver, more limited in the kidney and small intestine under some conditions.

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19
Q

The three irreversible steps that glucogenesis has to bypass

A
  • Hexokianse
  • Phosphofructokinase
  • Pyruvate kinase
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20
Q

The energy expense of gluconeogenesis

A

for 1 glucose produced:

4ATP + 2GTP + 2NADH

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21
Q

Phosphorylation of enzymes and regulatory proteins in the liver by protein kinase A results in..?

A
  • inhibition of glycolysis
  • stimulation of gluconeogenesis
  • making glucose available for release to the blood
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22
Q

Enzymes that are phosphorylated by protein kinase A…

A
  • Pyruvate kinase
  • CREB
  • Fructose-2,6-biphosphate
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23
Q

Transport of Mitochondrial Matrix

A
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24
Q

What is a Lipid?

A

Biological molecule that is insoluble in aqueous solutions and soluble in organic sollvents. Have relations to fatty acids as esters. Potentiality of utilization by living organisms.

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25
Q
  1. What is required for the activation of a
    fatty acid?
  2. What does one cycle of oxidation of a
    fatty acid produce?
  3. What does Acetyl CoA produce when
    entering the cytric acid cycle?
A
  1. 2 ATP
  2. 1 NADH = 3 ATP
    1 FADH2 = 2 ATP
  3. 12 ATP
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26
Q

Name 4 physiological functions of Lipids

A
  1. They serve as structural components of
    biological membranes
  2. Provide energy reserves, predominantly in
    the form of triacylglycerols
  3. Both lipids and lipid derivatives serve as
    vitamins and hormones
  4. Lipophilic bile acids aid in lipids
    solubilization
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27
Q

Where are Ketone bodies formed?

A

Ketogenisis in the Mitochondria

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28
Q

4 classes of Lipids

A

1 Simple lipids
2 Compound lipids
3 Derived lipids
4 Miscellaneous lipids

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29
Q

How does Ketosis occur?

A

Concentration of acetoacetate is very high and supply of oxaloacetate ( OAA - a TCA component) is insufficient, so acetoacetate is spontaneously decarboxylated to acetone

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30
Q

Types of Simple Lipids

A

1 Natural fats and oils (triglycerides)

  1. Waxes
    (a) True waxes: cetyl alcohol esters of fatty
    acids
    (b) Cholesterol esters
    (c) Vitamin A esters
    (d) Vitamin D esters
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31
Q

Types of Compound Lipids

A
  1. Phospholipids and spingomyelin
  2. Sphingolipids (also include glycolipids and
    cerebrosides)
  3. Sulfolipids
  4. Lipoproteins
  5. Lipopolysaccharides
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32
Q

Types of derived lipids

A
  1. Saturated & unsaturated fatty acids
  2. Monoglycerides and diglycerides
  3. Alcohols (b-carotenoid ring, e.g., vitamin A,
    certain carotenoids)
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33
Q

Types of Miscellaneous Lipids

A
  1. Aliphatic hydrocarbons
  2. Carotenoids
  3. Squalene:
  4. Vitamin E and K
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34
Q

Fatty acids

A

Carbon atoms -
Saturated = only single bonds
Unsaturated = has double bonds
Essential fatty acids -
Cannot be synthesized by body
Must originate from Dietary source
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic,
linoleinic arachidonic)

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35
Q

Activation of Fatty acids

A
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36
Q

Signifigance of ketogenesis and ketogenolysis

A
  1. Early stages of fasting, the use of ketone bodies by heart, and skeletal
    muscle conserves glucose for support of the central nervous system. With more
    prolonged starvation, the brain can take up more ketone bodies to spare glucose
    consumption
  2. High concentration of ketone bodies can induce ketonemia and ketonuria, and
    even ketosis and acidosis
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37
Q

Fatty acid Synthesis

A

Synthesized and degraded by different pathways
– from acetyl CoA
– in the cytosol
– intermediates are attached to the acyl
carrier protein (ACP)
– the activated donor is malonyl–ACP
– reduction uses NADPH + H+
– stops at C16 (palmitic acid)

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38
Q

Reactions in Fatty acid reduction

A

1 Condensation - synthase combines
acetyl-ACP with malonyl-ACP to form
acetoacetyl-ACP (4C) and CO2
2 Reduction - converts a ketone to an
alcohol using NADPH
3 Dehydration - a trans
double bond is formed
4 Reduction - converts the double
bond to a single bond using
NADPH

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39
Q

When is Fatty acid synthesis complete?

A

When palmitoyl ACP reacts with water to give palmitate and free ACP

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40
Q

Types of polysaccharides

A

Homopolysaccharides
E.g. glycogen
heteropolysaccharides
E.g. peptidoglycans

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41
Q

Functions of polysaccharide s

A

Glucose storage
Osmotic pressure
Information
Structure

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42
Q

What is glycogen

A

Branched polymer of a 1->4 with glucose residues with 1->6 branches
Like amylopectin but highly branched
Branches increase H20 solubility
Many nonreducing ends but only 1 reducing end

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43
Q

Glycogenolysis what is it

A

Breakdown of glucose to glycogen

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44
Q

Where is glycogen stored and why

A

In the liver:The synthesis and breakdown are regulated to maintain blood glucose levels

In muscles:The synthesis and breakdown are regulated to meet the energy requirements of the muscle cell

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45
Q

Glycogenylosis step 1

A
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46
Q

Other facts about glycogenylosis step 1 reaction

A

It’s reversible
No investment of ATP needed and can enter glycolysis directly
The phosphorylated product (glucose 1-phosphate) can’t leave the cell

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47
Q

What is pyridoxal phosphate (prp)

A

A coenzyme that’s a derivative of pyridixine (vitamin B6).Vitamin B6 is required for the mobilization of glucose from glycogen

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48
Q

What happens during glycogenolysis

A
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49
Q

What is the main product of glycogen breakdown

A

Glucose 1 phosphate

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50
Q

What happens during glycogenesis explained using words instead of the graph

A
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51
Q

Epinephrine and glucagon stimulate.What are their functions

A

Muscles responsive to epinephrine and liver responsive to glucagon.Both signal a cascade of events leading to glycogen breakdown

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52
Q

Fates of glucose 6 phosphate

A
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53
Q

The liver contains glucose 6 phosphatase.The muscles don’t.Why?

A

Liver releases blood to be used up by the brain and muscles so it helps regulate glucose levels

The muscles retain glucose 6 phosphate for energy.Phosphorylated glucose not transported out of muscle cells

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54
Q

glycogen n + udp glucose=what in glycogenesis synthesis

A

glycogen n+1 + udp glucose

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55
Q

glycogen n + PI=what

A

glycogen n-1 + glucose 1 phosphate

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56
Q

Glucose 1-phosphate + UTP + H2O

A

UDP-glucose + 2Pi

57
Q

udp glucose and glycogen n becomes what

A

utp glucose and glycogen n+1

58
Q

what dooes the a 1,4 link become

A

a 1,6 link

59
Q

what is the regulatory enzyme and whats it regulated by.what happens in this process

A

glycogen synthase and phosphorylation.in it active a form converted to inactive b form

60
Q

what regulates blood glucose levels and increases them

A

glycogen metabolism in the liver.this increases when carbs are eaten

61
Q

when does pp1 work best

A

when phosphorylase a is in the t state

62
Q

list of reactions for glycogenolysis

A
63
Q

what happens in the pentose phosphate pathway

A
64
Q

functions of the pentose phosphate pathway

A

NADPH production( reducing power carrier and role as cellular oxidants) and ribose synthesis( nucleic acids and nucleotides)

65
Q

Demand for NADPH

A

biosynthetic pathways and detoxification

66
Q

what are the 2 phases of the pentose pathway

A
67
Q

describe the oxidative and nonoxidative pathways of the pentose pathway

A

oxidative produces nadph and is irreversible
non oxidative produces ribose 5 and is irreversible

68
Q

describe the whole process of the oxidative stage of the phosphate pentose pathway

A
69
Q

regulation of pentose phosphate pathway

A

glucose 6 phosphate is the enzyme.nadph is the inhibitor.however more demand for nadph increases enzyme activity

70
Q

pentose phosphate pathway regulation

A
  1. Rapidly dividing cells require more ribose 5 phosphate than nadph

2.The need for nadph and ribose 5 phosphate is balanced

3.More nadph needed than ribose 5 phosphate.Fatty acid synthesis in adipose tissues

4.Cell needs both nadph and atp

71
Q

lactose synthesis (what is it).

A

lactose is synthesised by lactose synthase.enzyme is made of 2 proteins a and b.a is galactosyltransferase and found in many body tissues.b is a lactalbumin and b and a form a complex so lactose is formed

72
Q

function of the rumen

A

break down cellulose.Creates loss of gases (methane) and ruminants have to eructate (belch)

73
Q

animals with a rumen

A

cattle, sheep, goats, deer

74
Q

how do horses process grass without a rumen

A

They have a cecum (4 feet), large colon (10-12 feet), small colon (10-12 feet) and rectum (1 foot).Horses use microorganisms rather than enzymes for breaking down food

75
Q

cellulolytic bacteria

A

Produces cellulase -cleaves B1-4 linkages.Substrates are cellulose and hemicellulose.Best ph is 6-7.The microbes break down polysaccharides and sugars to produce vfa

75
Q

What is the Cori cycle.

A

A cycle thats costs 6p for every 2p made.Overall cost is 4p

76
Q

what regulates glucose levels when they are too high

A

pp1 which stimulates glycogen synthesis

77
Q

Complex lipids make up…

A

Membranes

78
Q

Lipid layers line up with..

A

Aliphatic tails inward

79
Q

Glycerophospholipids

A
  • Glycerol is the alcohol
  • Two are fatty acids
  • Third is esterified to PO4^3- and choline
80
Q

Phosphotidylcholines

A
  • also called “lecithins”
81
Q

Phosphatidylinositols (PI)

A
  • Alcohol is inositol
  • Serve as signaling or communication sites
82
Q

Cephalins

A
  • another type of glycerophospholipds
  • alcohol is ethanolamine or serine instead of choline
83
Q

Sphingolipids

A
  • coating of nerve axons (myelin)
  • alcohol portion is sphingosine (not glycerol)
84
Q

glycolipids

A
  • contain carbohydrates
  • also use sphingosine
  • one type is cerebrosides
85
Q

Steroids

A
  • a third major class of lipids
  • they are all based on this structure
86
Q

Cholesterol

A
  • most abundant steroid in the body
  • cell membrane component
  • raw material for steroids synthesis
  • It exists in both free and esterified forms
  • Esterifies with FA
  • Necessary for human life
  • Manufactured in the liver - body keeps a set amount
87
Q

Lipoproteins

A
  • classified by density
    – protein: lipid ratio
    —> more protein, increased density
    —> more lipid, decreased density
  • transport cholesterol and fats
88
Q

The four classes of lipoproteins and where they are made

A

Four classes of lipoproteins:
- Chylomicrons
- VLDL - very low density lipoproteins
- LDL - low density lipoproteins (not good kind)
- HDL - high density lipoproteins (good kind)

They are made in the liver

89
Q

Typical values for cholesterol, HDL and LDL

A

Cholesterol:
- female: 157 - 167
- males: 150 - 174

HDL:
- females: 52 - 55
- males: 45

LDL:
- females: 100 - 106
- males: 97 - 116

90
Q

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL)

A
  • enzymes anchored on the cell membranes in blood vessels
  • releases glyceron and free fatty acids from chylomicrons and lipoproteins
91
Q

Triglycerides

A
  • neutral fats
  • made of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
  • 95% of dietary lipids (fats and oils)
92
Q

How much kcal/g does complete oxidation of fatty acids yield? And how much do proteins and carbohydrates yield?

A

Complete oxidation: 9 kCal/g

Proteins and carbohydrates: 4 kCal/g

93
Q

Where do triaclyglycerols accumulate in mammals?

A

Mainly in the cytoplasm of adipose cells (fat cells).

94
Q

Triglyceride metabolism

A
  • key concept - absorption
  • triglyceride assimilation is key to the survival of the organism
  • Dietary triglyceride must be hydrolyzed to fatty acids, monoglycerides, and glycerol before absorption
  • Fatty acids must partition to the micellar phase for absorbtion
94
Q

Eicosanoids

A

Large group of autocoids with potents effects

Derived from metabolism of 20 carbon unsaturated fatty acids

95
Q

Lipolysis - monogastric and ruminant

A
  • hydrolysis of triaclyglycerols by lipases
  • mobilization of body triglycerides for use as energy
95
Q

Eicosanoids groups

A
  1. The prostaglanids
  2. Thromboxanes
  3. Leukotrienes
  4. HPETE (Hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic
    acids)
    5.HETE (Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids)
96
Q

Triglyceride catabolism

A
  • Hydrolysis of triglycerides yields
    – one glycerol
    – Three FFA
  • glycerol is used for energy or gluconeogenesis
    – glyceron enters glycolytic pathways
  • FFA are oxidized to CO2 and H2O
    – B-oxidation
    – takes place in mitochondria
    – FA’s cannot be used for gluconeogenesis
96
Q

Eiscanoid hormones

A

Top left - Prostaglandin A2
Top right - Prostacylin (PGI2)
Bottom left - Thromboxane A2 (TXA2)
Bottom right - Leukotreine B4

97
Q

Adipocytes are…

A

the major storage site for triglycerides

97
Q

Pathways of arachidonic acid in biosynthesis

A
  1. Phospholipase A2-mediated production from membrane phospholipids. Pathway is inhibited by glucocorticoids.
  2. Phospholipase C
98
Q

Adipose tissue contains..

A

up to approximately 85% lipid

98
Q

Eicosinoid Pathway 1.
Produce of prostaglandin H synthase
(COX, cyclooxygenase) pathway

A
  1. Thromboxane
  2. prostaglandin E/PGE
    prostaglandin F/PGF
    prostaglandin D/PGD
  3. Prostacylin (PGI2)
99
Q

Leptin

A
  • protein hormone produced by adipocytes
    – larger cells = more leptin produced
  • effects on many tissues
    – hypothalamus
    —> regulates eating behavior
    —> negative-feedback mechanism
99
Q

Eicosinoid Pathway 2.
Produce of lipoxygenase pathway

A

1.HPETEs
2.HETEs
3.leukotrienes

100
Q

Biosynthesis of triacylglycerols main pathways

A

Three main pathways for triacylglycerol biosynthesis are known:
- sn-glycerol-3-phosphate
- Dihydroxyacetone phosphate pathways
- Monoacylgycerol pathway

100
Q

Eicosanoid Hormones

A
101
Q

Flipases, EC and IC

A
  • Selective translocation of PC to the ER lumen occurs. This becomes the plasma membrane

EC - rich in PC and SPH

IC - rich in PE and PS

101
Q

How is HMG-CoA reductase controlled in transcription, translation and posttranslational modifications?

A

Transcription - mRNA synthesis is inhibited by food cholesterol

Translation - HMG-CoA reductase synthesis is inhibited by non-ster derivatives of mevalonic acid

Posttranslational modification - increased level of cholesterol and/or mevalonic acid stimulates phosphorylation of HMG-CoA reductase –> enhancing degradation by proteases

102
Q

Biological significance of cholesterol

A
  • an essential lipid constituent of cell membranes
  • a precursor of steroid hormones and of bile acids
  • intermediates of cholesterol biosynthesis are required to make vitamin D and for posttranslational modification of membrane proteins
  • high plasma cholesterol promotes atherosclerosis
102
Q

Formation of Δ3 -Isopentenyl pyrophosphate

A

First its Melalonate, then with the help of mevalonate kinase and phosphomevalonate kinase it becomes 5-pyrophosphomevalonate. This with the help of pyrophosphomevalonate decarboxylase further becomes Δ3 -Isopentenyl pyrophosphate.

103
Q

Processes that determine the cholesterol balance

A
  • intestinal uptake of dietary cholesterol
  • de novo cholesterol synthesis
  • synthesis of steroid hormones from cholesterol
  • synthesis of bile acids from cholesterol, and their billary secretion
  • bilary secretion of surpus cholesterol in unmodified form
103
Q

Formation of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate

A

Isopentenyl pyrophosphate becomes dimethylallyl pyrophosphate with the help of isomerase

104
Q

De novo synthesis of cholesterol, where is it? what is the equation?

A

Primary site: liver

Secondary sites: adrenal cortex, ovaries, testes

104
Q

Synthesis of farnesyl pyrophosphate

A

Geranyl pyrophosphate becomes Farnesyl pyrophosphate with the help of geranyltransferase

105
Q

Major roles of complex lipids

A
  1. energy
  2. membranes
  3. hormones
  4. cell-signaling
105
Q

Lanosterol formation

A

2x farnesyl pyrophosphate becomes squalene with the help of squalene synthase. Squalene goes through cyclization and becomes lanosterol

106
Q

What in the liver parenchymal cell is involved in the synthesis of ketone bodies?

A

Mitochondrial HMG-CoA synthase

106
Q

How many steps does the conversion of lanosterol to cholesterol require?

A

It requires 19 separate steps

107
Q

Conversion of HMG CoA to activated isoprenoids

A

HMG CoA reductase catalyzes mevalonic acid

Reaction catalyzed by the enzyme is the rate-limiting reaction.

The enzyme is the target of statins which inhibit the activity of HMG-CoA reductase.

(the statins can decrease total plasma cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol even by 50%)

107
Q

De novo synthesis of cholesterol in short:

A

Stage 1: Forms HMG CoA

Stage 2: Forms activated 5 carbon intermediates (isoprenoids)

Stage 3: Six isoprenoids form squalene

Stage 4: Squalene + O2 form cholesterol

108
Q

What is energy dissipation in the liver thought to contribute to

A

The 6p expended for every 2p produced causes weight loss

108
Q

Fasting vs feeding cholesterol synthesis

A

Feeding promotes cholesterol synthesis

Fasting inhibits cholesterol synthesis

109
Q

Regulation of Acetyl-CoA carboxylase
Global vs Local

A

Global:
+ insulin
- glucagon
- epinephrine

Local:
+ citrate
-Palmitoyl-CoA
-AMP

109
Q

Types of bile acids/salts

A

Primary bile acids
- good emulsifying agent
- all OH on the same side
- pKa = 6

Conjugated bile salts
- amide bonds of glycine or taurine
- very good emulsifier
- pKa lower than bile acids

110
Q

Synthesis of bile salts

A
  • Hydroxylation
  • side chain cleavage
  • conjugation
  • secondary bile acids
110
Q

LDL receptor deficiency

A
  • gene for LDL is on chromosome 19
  • no gender difference
  • Mutation is recessive
  • 420 different mutations identified (dominant trait)
  • activity 0 - 25% of normal
110
Q
A
110
Q
A
111
Q

Heterozygous FH vs Homozygous FH

A

Heterozygous FH:
- 1/500
- Hypercholesterolemia

Homozygous FH:
- 1/1 000 000
- Extremely high LDL - cholesterol

112
Q

Types of steroid hormones

A
  • Glucocorticoids; cortisol is the major representative in most mammals
  • Mineralocorticoids; aldosterone being the most prominent
  • Androgens such as testosterone
  • Estrogens, including estradiol and estrone
  • Progestogens (also known as progestins) such as progesterone
113
Q

Steroid hormones are derived from…

A

Cholesterol

114
Q

Two important facts about steroid hormones

A

They are freely permeable to membranes so they are not stored in cells

They are not water soluble so they have to be carried in the blood complexed to specific binding globulins

115
Q

Functions of steroid hormones

A
  • carbohydrate regulation (glucocorticoids)
  • mineral balance (mineralocorticoids)
  • reproductive functions (gonadal steroids)

also play roles in inflammatory responses, stress responses, bone
metabolism, cardiovascular fitness, behavior, cognition, and mood.

116
Q
A
117
Q
A
118
Q
A
119
Q
A

Biochemistry 1 (20 decks)

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