Test 2 Review Flashcards
Dehydration synthesis
Removing water and linking together monomers to create polymers.
One less water molecule than number of monomers
Hydrolysis
Adding h2o and to break polymer bonds
Lactose
Substrate and disaccharide
Fructose and glucose
Disaccharide
Two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage
A covalent bond formed by dehydration reaction
Starch
Polysaccharide stored by plants
They’re glycosidic linkage is in an alpha structure
Hydroxyl attached below the plane of the ring
Glycogen
a polymer of glucose that animals store
Polysaccharide
Peptide bond
Dehydration bond used to assemble amino acids
Similar to glycosidic linkage for polysaccharide
Cellulose
Polysaccharide that comprises plant’s cell wall
Glycosidic linkage is in a beta structure the hydroxyl alternates one above and one below
Chitin
The polysaccharide used by anthropods (crustaceans and insects)
Also found in fungi
Lipids
Not considered true polymers because their monomers vary in structure
Aren’t big enough to be macromolecules
They are grouped together because they don’t mix with water
Mostly hydrocarbon (hydrophobic) and non-polar
Have a carboxyl on the end that makes them a fatty acid
Created by an ester linkage between hydroxyl and carboxyl
Triaglycerol
Three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
Saturated fat
No double bonds between carbons in the tail
Solid at room temp because there are a lot of the hydrocarbons packed together
Example: butter, lard
It saturated with hydrogen
Unsaturated fat
One or more double bonds in the tail with one fewer hydrogen atoms on each double bonded carbon
Causes a kink in the hydrocarbon chain
Liquid at room temp
Hydrogenated means that hydrogen has been synthetically added to make it a saturated fat (bad ie peanut butter, margarine)
Lots of fluidity because of the kinks
Animals and plants in colder climates will have more unsaturated fats which will mean that it’ll take colder temps for them to become solid
Phospholipid
Two fatty acids attached to glycerol
Hydrophilic head (polar)
Hydrophobic tail (non-polar)
Cholesterol
Steroid obtained from diet
They involve four interconnected rings CH3
Polypeptides
Polymer chains of amino acids
Amino acids
Composed of an amino group and carboxyl group
H\N/H
Peptide bond
Removal of water (dehydration reaction) to make a protein polymer
Polypeptides
Protein structure
Primary, secondary, tertiary, and occasionally quaternary
Primary structure
Involves an amino acid chain link with a unique sequence
Secondary structure
Coils and folds that occur because of hydrogen
Alpha helix - a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding occurring between every fourth amino acid
Beta pleated sheet - two or more strands of the polypeptide chain lying side by side are held together by hydrogen bonds between the backbone
Tertiary structure
The overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains (r groups)
Hydrophobic interactions
Disulfide bridge
Quaternary structure
The overall structure that occurs with two or more polypeptide chains aggregated into one functional molecule
Ie hemoglobin
Sickle cell disease
Includes a problem with the protein’s structure (sickle shaped) hemoglobin which cause them to clog tiny blood vessels impeding blood flow
Chaperonins
Chaperone proteins that assist in proper protein folding of other proteins
It shields the protein from “bad influences” in the cytoplasm
Misfolding is serious and causes Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and mad cow disease
Is like a capsule that keeps the protein safe while folding
Nucleotides
Monomer
Nucleic acids are polymer
DNA vs RNA
DNA provides instructions for its own replication and RNA contains instructions for creating proteins
DNa has deoxyribose and rna has ribose
Rna single strand and DNa is double helix
T-A (U in rna) G-C
Pyramidine
Cut
Cytosine, uracil, thymine
Aldehyde sugars
Carbonyl group at the end
Ketones
Carbonyl group inside the carbon skeleton
Cell fractionation
Takes cells apart and separates major organelles and other structures from another
Centrifuge
High speed = pellet with smaller component
Lower speed = bigger component
Cell size
Determined by surface to volume ratio
High surface to volume ratio facilitates the exchange of materials between a cell and its environment
Glucose
Monomer
Carbohydrate
C6H12O6
Cytoskeleton
A network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
Motor proteins
Attach to the cytoskeleton and help direct vesicles
Microtubules
Hollow tubes
13 columns of tubulin molecules
Chromosome movements in cell division
Formed in centrosome
Has a pair of centrioles that have nine sets of Microtubules
Cilia flagella
Have dyenin motor proteins attached to them
Microfilaments
Actin and myosin
Two strands of intertwined actin
Help with muscle contraction
Cytoplasmic streaming
Cell pseudopodia (cell motility)
Middle lamella
Exists between primary walls of adjacent plant cells
Glues them together with pectin
Plasmodesmata
Membrane lined channels filled with cytoplasm in plant cells
Tight junctions
Exist between animal cells
The PMs are tightly pressed against each other bound by proteins forming continuous deals around the cells.
Exist in skin s to prevent leakage between cells in our sweat glands
Gap junctions
Like Plasmodesmata in plant cells
Provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another
Nuclear lamina
Netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope
Tay Sachs disease
A lipid digesting enzyme is missing or inactive
Allosteric enzyme
Involves an enzyme with more than one receptor site
Remember ligand
Smooth er
Makes lipids
Gauscher disease: deficiency in smooth er
Cell-cell recognition
Is mediated by way of glycoproteins
Selective permeability
Allow small molecules in that are nonpolar and hydrophobic
These dissolve easily :Hydrocarbons
CO2
Carrier proteins
Change shape to aid in transporting items
Electrochemical gradient
A combination between the chemical force (the ion’s concentration gradient) and the electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential or charge on the ion’s movement)
Electrogenic pump
Animals - sodium potassium
Plants, fungi, bacteria: proton pump
Cotransport
An ATP pump that transports a specific solute that indirectly drives the active transport of several other solutes
Plants actively pump hydrogen atoms, but amino acids and sugars come with it.
Receptor mediated Endocytosis
Human cells use this to take in cholesterol for membrane synthesis and synthesis of steroids
LDLs act as ligands (a molecule that bonds to the receptor site of another molecule)
Familial hypercholesterol, ldls cannot enter the cells because the ldl receptor proteins are defective or missing
Catabolic pathways
Release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds
Cellular respiration
Hydrolysis
Increases entropy
Heat/condensation increases entropy
Anabolic pathways
Consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones
Ie dehydration synthesis
Decreases entropy
First law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transformed, but never destroyed
Second law
Every transformation of energy increases the entropy of the universe
Why does hydrolysis occur more than condensation
Because we’re increasing the order from simpler structures to larger ones
The change in free energy
Delta G= deltaH-TdeltaS
Delta g= change in free energy
Delta h = enthalpy or total energy
Delta s = entropy
T equals temp in kelvin
Exergonic
Release free energy
Delta G is negative
Ie cellular respiration
Endergonic
Absorbs free energy
Delta g is positive
Water being moved uphill
Activation energy
The initial investment of energy for starting a reaction
Enzyme
Catalyst that speeds up the reaction without being consumed by the reaction
Cofactors or coenzymes
Block substrates from attaching to enzyme active sites
Zinc as an example
Helps catty natural elements
Optimal temp for typical human enzyme 37
Optimal temp for bacteria enzyme is much higher 77
Pepsin
Stomach acid ph enzyme is much lower (2)
Trypsin
More basic enzyme so optimum ph is higher (8)
