Test 2 Flashcards
What is the definition of Life History?
The lifetime pattern of GROWTH, REPRODUCTION, and DEVELOPMENT.
Describe the cost of reproduction for three-spined sticklebacks
Some males have red throats, which increases their reproduction, but also makes them more visible to predators
Describe the different modes of reproduction (2)
Sexual: Genetic diversity, more choices
Asexual: Stolons, rhizomes, budding, parthenogenesis, easy mating
Describe the different mating strategies and examples of each (2)
Monogamy: Common in birds (raise young together) and in mammals that are territorial with a strong social structure
Polygamy: Individual with many mates does not care for offspring, occurs when resources are unevenly distributed. Either Polygyny (>1 female per male) or Polyandry (>1 male per female)
Describe Polygyny, Polyandry, and Promiscuity
Polygyny: Male bonds with 2+ Females, # depends on sexual receptivity length
Polyandry: Female bonds with 2+ Males, occurs in unstable environment (need more help with eggs)
Promiscuity: No pair bonding, occurs in zoos and populations with unbalanced gender ratios
What is the definition of iteroparous? Describe its effects
Reproduce many times. Early reproduction leads to lower fecundity per episode and reduced survivorship, later reproduction leads to higher fecundity and survivorship
What is the definition of semelparous? Describe its effects
Reproduce only once (occurs in insects, plants, fish). Initial investment only to growth, development, and energy storage. One large reproductive effort, then death
What is the definition of parthenogenesis?
Females produce all female offspring without fertilization
What are the types of hermaphrodites? What about plants?
Sequential hermaphrodites are triggered by size or a change in the sex ratio of the population (as in parrotfish F→M)
Simultaneous hermaphrodites always possess both male and female reproductive structures
Plants can be dioecious (separate male and female individuals), hermaphroditic (bisexual flowers), or monoecious (male and female flowers)
Describe the tradeoff between future survival (of the parent) and parental care
Probability of future survival can be reduced by feeding and protection of young
Female red deer in Scotland that reared a calf to weaning age (milk hinds) had higher mortality than those that did not (yeld hinds)
Describe the environment that leads to a large number of offspring with little investment
Unpredictable environments or areas where parental care is difficult
Describe the difference between the spotted salamander and the redback salamander
The spotted salamander has many eggs with no parental care while the redback salamander lays a few eggs that are guarded
Describe the tradeoff between body mass of an individual and its absolute fecundity. What are some examples?
More body mass more fecundity.
Between three species of crab, the ones that waited to have their first brood had more eggs per brood
Lifetime reproductive success of European red squirrel positively correlates with body weight in first adult winter
Describe the tradeoff between fecundity and survival
Using the example of the European Kestrels:
When the brood size of European kestrels was artificially increased, both parents hunted more, adult survival declined, food intake per chick declined, nestling growth rate was reduced, and nestling mortality increased
Describe the occurrence of asynchronous hatching. In what animals does it occur?
Occurs in some species of raptors, herons, and egrets that live in unstable environments
Egg laying is staggered over a week, last egg hatched has a big disadvantage
Describe the difference between altricial and precocial
Altricial: Young are born helpless
Precocial: Young are born at a more advanced state of development
Describe how sexual selection occurs in species with or without resources being a factor
Without resources
Exaggerated characteristics or sexual displays
With resources
Intrasexual selection involves M-M competition
Define Lek Species and describe the different types
Lek Species have gene-only female choice. The males gather to engage in competitive displays to woo females.
Female Choice → Females pick mating territory
Hotspot → Males establish a lek where many female’s range overlapped
Hotshot → Mala/mate interactions, 1 male has >90% of the copulation, females pick ground
Define r-selected vs. k-selected species. Which are spotted salamanders and which are redback salamanders?
Growth, survival curve, cause of mortality, parental care, # of offspring, age at first reproduction, level of intraspecific competition
R-Selected
Exponential growth, density independent mortality, type 2 or 3 survival curve, low intraspecific competition
Low age at maturity with rapid growth, large litter or clutch size, reproduction on quantity with little to no parental care
Example: Spotted salamanders
K-Selected
Constant growth near carrying capacity, density-dependent mortality, type I survival curve, intense intraspecific competition
High age at maturity with slow growth, small litter or clutch size, reproduction on quality with substantial parental care
Example: Redback Salamanders
Name and describe the two categories of regulators of population dynamics
Density-dependent
Disease, competition, predation
Density-independent
Floods/Droughts, fires, storms, irregular climate
Name and describe the two types of intraspecific competition
Scramble - growth/reproduction depressed equally
Contest - some claim enough for themselves while denying others
What are the outcomes of intraspecific competition?
Growth retardation -Delayed development Growth reduction -Not growing to full size Increased mortality Reduced reproduction/fecundity
Describe self-thinning
When the population density increases, body mass decreases. When density lowers again due to deaths and reduced population size, body mass will increase again.
Lots of individuals will die during high density periods, but the body mass will increase in survivors
Describe the Allee effect
After the population size is reduced past a certain level, it becomes harder to find mates, and the growth rate decreases
Define Home Range vs Territory. How does territory change with population density?
Home Range: The area that an animal normally uses over the course of a year
Territory: Smaller than home range, well-protected
-Increased population density results in increased competition and smaller territory size
-The reduction in territory size lowered fecundity
Define PVA & MVP. What are the factors involved in PVA?
MVP or Minimum Viable Population: The number of individuals necessary to ensure the population’s existence over a stated period of time (such as 50/60 generations)
PVA or Population Viability Analysis: Estimation of MVP based on genetic factors, life history, previous fluctuations in population size, environmental variability, and more.
Define MDA
The area requirement per individual, involves size of home range and carrying capacity
It is the area of suitable habitat necessary for maintaining a MVP
How is MVP correlated with population growth rate
MVP is negatively correlated with growth rate
Describe the physiological mechanisms/responses of intraspecific competition
The increased crowding and social contact that occurs in high density populations causes stress that triggers hormonal changes that can suppress growth, curtial reproductive functions, and delay sexual activity. They may also suppress the immune system and break down while blood cells.
Compare pre-saturation dispersal vs. saturation dispersal. Who engages in each and what are the consequences?
The individuals that engage in pre-saturation dispersal are usually subadults that usually perish due to predation and interspecific competition
Pre-saturation dispersal has higher success than saturation dispersal; however, because it allows individuals to grab resources in adjacent areas early and prevent inbreeding
Describe Swidden agriculture. How does it work?
The technique of rotational farming in which land is cleared (such as by fire) and then left to regenerate after a few years.
Release nutrients back into the soil and change soil chemistry
Allows sunlight to reach the ground, stimulating decomposers that make organic matter available to plants
Removes older plants and replaces them with new ones → more diversity
Describe groundwater nitrate contamination (amount, mechanism)
A lot of groundwater is at risk of nitrate contamination due to farming
Testing the groundwater in the Ogallala Aquifer showed that 90% of samples contained nitrate from fertilizers
What are the reasons that caused the collapse of the Pacific sardines?
During the 1940’s and 50’s younger fish were taken a lot
Problems competing with anchovies
Abiotic factors such as warmer temperatures causing reproductive failure
Compare and define MSY vs OSY
Maximum Sustained Yield (MSY): Take population down to a level that can be replaced by next year
Optimal Sustained Yield (OSY): An amount less than the MSY, has a safety factor
Describe the Fixed Quota method of managing exploitable populations
Fixed Quota: Used in fisheries and in response to overfishing, risky
Describe the Harvest Effort method of managing exploitable populations
Harvest Effort:Used in sport hunting, regulates the number of hunters, number of bags, and time length. It is more successful than fixed quotas.
Describe the Dynamic Pool Model method of managing exploitable populations
Dynamic Pool Model: Changing quotas based on past harvests and population heath, used in Japanese fisheries
What made the wild turkey restoration successful?
The Pittman-Robertson Federal Aid Act provided a constant flow of money to restoring populations
High public support due to Thanksgiving and general hunting
Very adaptable
Forest/Habitat not destroyed
Continue intensive studies even after recovery
What causes wildlife extinction?
Habitat destruction, fragmentation, or alteration
-Whooping Cranes
Human Competition
-American Bison
Poaching
-Rare species like hellbenders are more valuable
Lead Poisoning and Shooting
-Die from bullet alone, can also poison others
Disease
-Density dependent chronic wasting syndrome, also called spongiform encephalopathy workes using prions that affect the CNS
Collection (hunting)
Natural Disasters
What issues need to be considered in wildlife management?
Habitat (need to from corridors) Life strategy of species (r vs k) Carrying capacity of the habitat Genetics/biodiversity (california condor) Interspecific Activity (predation) Abiotic factors (climate stability) Public Support
What are some problems with reintroduction of endangered species?
High cost Loss of habitat Niche already occupied Logistical difficulties Reduction or fragmentation of habitat Adapting back to the wild -Need behavior training to simulate temperature and predation
What is the average amount of time that it takes for insects to develop resistance?
around 5 years
Compare instability between exploited and un-exploited populations
Exploitation causes instability, more variability in population size
Describe the Sierra Club
Founded by John Muir
Makes sure the government following the law, if not they will sue the environment
Describe the first national park
Yellowstone, The first national park was created in 1872 by Ulysses S Grant
Compare organochlorine vs. organophosphate pesticides. Which is the first generation biocide? Which is more environmentally persistent?
Organochlorinated compounds (OCs) were developed in WW2 then promoted as pesticides
Boll weevil developed resistance, so organophosphates (OP) were created that were more effective and more easily broken down in the environment
Which is the first generation biocides? Organochlorides
Which one is more environmentally persistent? Organochlorides
Describe the causes of population decline in whooping cranes, California condors, and Formosan serow
Whooping cranes
-Habitat loss and over-hunted
Did not find summer grounds until 1954, then created an alternate route using an airplane and young birds
California condor
-Poaching, lead poisoning (indirect), and habitat destruction
Formosan serow
-Habitat exploitation and high levels of hunting with illegal methods
What books did Aldo Leopold write?
The River of the Mother of God, A Sand County Almanac
What books did Rachel Carson write?
Silent Spring
What books did Jared Diamond write?
The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal, Guns Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, The World Until Yesterday
What was Aldo Leopold’s influence?
Founding Father of wildlife management, established the nation’s first Department of Wildlife Ecology at UW-Madison and served two decades in the Forest Service. Believed that deer and forests were being overprotected
Wildlife management as a technique for restoring and maintaining biodiversity by public and private landowners
Non-Utilitarianism → Emphasize on aesthetic, emotional, spiritual and ethical values of nature
What was Rachel Carson’s influence?
Discussed DDT and environmental chemicals
Got information from Patuxent Wildlife Research Center
1972 DDT banned by US EPA
What did Jared Diamond write about?
Factors that involve establishment of ancient civilizations
Being able to focus on warfare/technology due to establishments in farming?
Factors that involve collapse of civilizations
Mismanaged/overutilized resources, environmental damage, climate change, hostile neighbors, removal of friendly trade partners
Name and describe the different types of interspecific interactions
Neutral: Neither Affected
Mutualism: Both Benefit
Fox and Badger hunting together
Commensalism: One benefits, other not affected
Predation: One benefits, other is harmed
Herbivory, carnivory
- Parasitism: One benefits, other is harmed
- Parasitoidism: One benefits, other is killed
-Endoparasitoidism: One lives inside of another
Chinese caterpillar fungus lives inside of caterpillars, forces them to burrow underground, and sprouts out of their head
- Cannibalism
- Competition: Both hurt or both helped
What are the two possible consequences of interspecific competition?
Competitive Exclusion or Co-existance
Define Allelopathy. Give examples
Effect of metabolic products of plants on the growth and development of other nearby plants
Broom sedge: A type of grass that inhibits the invasion of shrubs
Bracken fern: Uses phenolic acids to kill germinating seeds of conifers
Black walnut: Secrete precursor to juglone, prevents broad leaf plants around the root system
Bamboos: Secrete phytotoxins to suppress fern growth
Talk about the chipmunks in Sierra Nevada, CA
Four types of chipmunks live on the same mountain
Alpine chipmunk, lodgepole chipmunk (lodgepole pine zone), yellow-pine chipmunk (pifton pine and sagebrush zone), and least chipmunk (sagebrush zone)
Least chipmunk can live in wide range, but its home range is restricted by aggressive yellow-pine chipmunk. The limit is defined by the most aggressive species, lodgepole.
Describe Gause’s Principle (or Competitive Exclusion Principle) and its assumptions
When two or more species coexist using the same resource, one must displace or exclude the other. Complete competitors cannot coexist
Invasion of exotic species
Assumes: Environmental factors remained constant, no emigration/immigration, competitors genetically unchanged through time
Extra Information: In Swidden agriculture, nutrients end up in ___________
the soil
Extra Information: Hemlock’s sexual type is ______________
monoecious hermaphrodite
Extra Information: Groundwater is most contaminated in the ___________
midwest
Extra Information: A guild is a _____________
group of species utilizing a gradient of resources in a similar way
Extra Information: The NGO ________________ purchases a bunch of land for conservation
nature conservatory
Extra Information: The ___________ Act was put in place due to overfishing
Magnuson-Stevens
Extra Information: The new path of the cranes went from ________ to __________
Wisconsin to Florida
Extra Information: Thompson coined the term __________ and counted _________ bison
range allowence
60 million
Extra Information: Seasonal monogamy is ____________ in birds
common
Extra Information: The revenue of wildlife programs depends on __________ and the ___________ tax of 1/8 percent
license revenues
missouri conservation sales
Extra Information: Sage grouse is a _________ species, which birds of paradise and prairie chickens are __________
hotspot
hotshot
Extra Information: The _____________ was in charge of the Grand River Grasslands Project
nature conservatory
Extra Information: ________ started the land ethics movement
Aldo Leopold
Extra Information: Spotted salamanders ___________ few eggs and guard them until hatched
do not lay
Extra Information: Monoecious hermaphrodite plants _________ possess both male and female reproductive structures within the same flower
do not
