Test 2 Flashcards
What is Risk Perception Attitude (RPA) framework
perceptions/reactions to health-related risks
what does RPA assume?
(in some cases) risk can motivate self-protective health behavior
What can understanding attitudes about risk help?
- more accurately predict responses based on risk perceptions
- more effective health campaigns.
what are the two dimensions of perceived risk
1) susceptibility
2) severity
what is susceptibility
degree to which a threat is likely to occur
“how likely it is to occur”
what is severity
noxiousness of a threat
“how bad will it be if it happens?”
what are the two perceptions of perceived efficacy
1) self efficacy
2) response efficacy
what is self efficacy
ability to cope with/prevent threat
“can I mitigate/prevent threat?”
what is response efficacy
effectiveness of strategies meant to cope with/prevent threat.
“will the strategies recommended to mitigate and prevent the treat work?”
what are the 4 possibilities of the RPA framework
1) response
2) avoidance
3) proactive
4) indifferent
what happens when you are responsive in the RPA framework
- take action
- ideal
- high risk and high efficacy
- most motivated to enact self-protect
- confident taking action to prevent/reduce risk
what happens when you “avoid” in the RPA framework
- high risk and low efficacy
- challenging
- conflicting motivations
- concerned of risks but feel unable to cope with it
- don’t feel they can prevent it from happening.
what is the proactive possibility in the RPA framework
- low risk and high efficacy
- not motivated by risk
- may take action because they believe that a behavior may be preventative (ex. airborne sunscreen in the moonlight)
what is the indifferent possibility in the RPA framework
- apathetic
- low risk and low efficacy
- least motivated to enact self-protect
- feel not at risk & unable to cope with threat.
what steps should be taken during the RPA framework and persuasion.
step 1) segment audience based on RPA
step 2) target msg best address each groups RPA
what is an optimistic bias
- focus on perceptions of relative risk
- people think self less susceptible to health risk
- a possible explanation as to why people don’t take preventative steps
what is another explanation of why people do not take preventative actions
egocentrism. people believe their self protect more extensive/effective than others (eg. thinking you eat more healthily than you do)
what is the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
explain response to msg that contains an argument/peripheral cues.
argument: content of a message
peripheral cues: info external to message content
what does the ELM make predictions about
responses to a single message
what is a dual process model
-explains two routes individuals process persuasive msgs (develop +/- attitude)
what are some assumptions of the ELM
- people are motivated to hold “correct” attitudes. -what is ‘correct’ is subjective
- incorrect attitudes are maladaptive - neg. consequences due to attitude
what are the two routes of message processing
central route
and
peripheral route
what is the central route in message processing
- attitude change is a function of message content and elaboration
(elaboration: the extent to which a person thinks about the issue-relevant arguments contained in a message)
careful scrutiny of message content
what is the peripheral route in message processing
shapes attitudes without need to engage in extensive issue-related thinking
EG. agreeing w/ message cuz source is credible, simple
what are some of the determinants of the processing route in ELM
- motivation
- ability
- central processing
- peripheral processing
in ELM, what are some factors that influence motivation
- involvement in the message topic
- need for cognition
- personal responsibility for your attitude
in ELM, what are some factors that influence ability
- able to process
- distraction
- background knowledge of topic
- message clarity
in ELM, what causes central processing
high motivation + high ability = central processing
quality of the arguments contained in message shud determine influence of msg on attitudes
in ELM, what causes peripheral processing
low motivation + low ability = peripheral processing
peripheral cues determine msg evaluation and influence of the msg on attitudes
explain the utility of the ELM
- understand 2 ways ppl respond to persuasive msgs (central & peripheral processing)
- identifies two elements that determine nature processing (motivation & ability)
- possible construct better persuasive msgs
What is the Heuristic Systematic Model (HSM)
a dual-process message processing model
what are some key assumptions of HSM
- individuals are cognitive misers (seek to minimize cognitive activity, not that people are lazy)
- sufficiency principle (ppl want to know as much as they need to in order to make decision, no more, no less)
in HSM, what are the two types of message processing
- systematic processing
- heuristic processing
what is systematic processing in HSM
- careful scrutiny of message content
- similar to central processing in the ELM
what is heuristic processing in HSM
- makes possible evaluation of message w/out scrutininzing the aruguments made
- “mental shortcuts”
Explain HSM and Message Processing
- heuristic processing is our default state
- systematic processing occurs when people have sufficient motivation & ability
- dual processing possible (heuristic & systematic processing)
what are key differences in HSM and ELM
- HSM dual processing, ELM only one route
- heuristics more specific in terms of HSM, as “mental shortcuts”
- HSM starts w/ assumption ppl are cognitive misers
What is the Unimodel
- argues against the dual process models
- beliefs formed on basis of appropriate evidence
- info relevant to conclusion
In Unimodel, if motivated and able…
people will process whatever evidence is relevant
the distinction between central cues and message arguments is irrelevant
what is the message learning approach (MLA)
attitude change involves a chain of responses:
1) ATTENTION to the persuasive message
2) COMPREHENSION of its content
3) ACCEPTANCE/YIELDING to what is comprehended
4) RETENTION of the position agreed to
what are some MLA assumptions
1) must LEARN arguments in msg for change to occur
2) must REMEMBER arguments to persist change over time
3) yielding to argument determined by INCENTIVES (gain reward, avoid costs)
In MLA, who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?
- source = who
- message = what
- channel = medium
- receiver = to whom
- attitude change = what effect
(EG, ppl who, just by being them r persuasive…beyonce, oprah, etc)
what is credibility
- it is perceived (credible to some, not credible to others)
- it is situational (one can be a credible source bout some topics, but not others)
- it is dynamic (perceptions of source credibility can change over time)
what perceptions make up credibility
- expertise
- trustworthiness
in relation to credibility, what is expertise
- technical knowledge
- source well informed bout topic
- we accept advice from “experts”
what is a caveat
when being an expert is not enough.
weak evidence, experts shud act like experts
how can perceptions of expertise be increased
- titles, exp, certificates/education
- cite sources for evidence
- nonverbal behavior
- confidence
in relation to credibility, what is trustworthiness
- perception that a source will tell what he/she believe is the truth
- honesty, integrity
- trust can be as important as expertise
- some cases, trust more important
how can perceptions of trustworthiness be increased
- speak against own interests
- signs/symbols of trustworthiness
- association w/ other trust sources
- overhead messages (persuaded by msgs not supposed to hear)
what are some other facts about credibility
- expertise and trustworthiness are relative
- E & T do not have to be related. may think expert, but not trust
- often all components of E&T do not exist in one speaker
What is the sleeper effect
-changes in the effect of msgs from high & low credibility sources may not be the same over time
- absolute sleeper effects
- relative sleeper effects
what is the absolute sleeper effect
msg from high credibility source loses effect over time, whereas msg from low credibility becomes more effective
what is the relative sleeper effect
- both msgs become more ineffective over time
- msg from high credibility souce incurs greater loss in effect relative to low credibility source
what are some possible explanations for the sleeper effect
1) forgetting model
2) disassociation model
what is the forgetting model in the sleeper effect
- high credibility source produces more attitude change than low credibility source
- over time, source is forgotten –> attitude change, decays (regardless of source credibility)
- high credibility condition incurs more decay over time
what is the disassociation model in the sleeper effect
- persuasion result of both message and source factors
- high credibility source, decay over time in impact cuz source characteristics are disassociated w/ the message. source not forgotten, just disassociated w/ msg
- low credibility source, initial effects of msg offset by low quality of source, ovr time source is disassociated & the msg bcums more influencial
what are some related source factors in credibility?
- perceived attractiveness
- perceived similarity
- perceived likeability
- perceived authority
how does physical attractiveness play a role in credibility
- attractiveness persuasive in unimportant situations
- peripheral cue in ELM
- related to liking, not override credibility
- use one positive characteristic to make positive generalizations bout a person
- seem more friendly, likeable, outgoing
how does perceived similarity play a role in credibility
-the more similar to urself speaker appears, greater their effects
what are some kinds of similarity we relate to
- membership similarity
- attitude
- irrelevant similarities build rapport
- relevant lead to greater perceptions of trustworthiness & expertise (credibility)
what is perceived liking in credibility
- correlates highly w/ trust
- speakers sens of humor known to increase like
- like effects minimal when motivation is high
what is perceived authority in credibility
- communicate that you are an authority
- power
- referent power (well liked)
- expert power (based on knowledge)
- legitimate power (based on formal rank)
- reward power (control ovr valued resource)
- coercive (ability to sanction (reward?punish?))
What is the Toulmin’s Model of Argument in the Message Learning Approach (MLA)
- claim: conclusion thatthe msg source wants the audience to accept
- data: anything offered by the msg souce in support of claim
- warrant: belief of value that explains the step from data to the claim
(look at MLA slide)
what is message sidedness in MLA
- one-sided messages
- two-sided messsages (non-refutational)
- two-sided messages (refutational)
what is a one-sided message
contains only supporting arguments
what is a two-sided (non-refutational) message
addresses supporting arguments while acknowledging (but not refruting) opposing views
what is a two-sided (refutational) message
not only recognize opposing viewpoints but also refute them
What is prospect theory
- also called “gains-loss” theory
- makes predictions about responses to risk
- prospect theory can be applied to message framing
what is message framing
- involves characterizing a risk in terms of gains or losses
- gains achieving positive outcome, avoid undesirable outcome
- losses include incurring neg. outcome, not achieving a desirable outcome
- msgs can be framed positively in terms of gains or negatively in terms of losses
what are two key prescriptions in message framing
- when behavioral choices involve risk or uncertainty, people will be more likely to take these risks when info is negatively framed. (losses or costs)
- when changes do not involve risk, msgs shud b positively framed (gains)
what is negative framing
not attaining a desirable outcome - both costly
what is positive framing
avoiding an undesirable outcome - both beneficial
what is language vividness
- emotionally interesting
- concrete and imagery-provoking
- proximate in a sensory, temporal, or spatial way
- vivid info attracts and holds our attention
what are some effects of vividness
- has a positive impact on persuasion, more recalled
- vivid (detailed) msgs infer that source knowledgable –> msg acceptance
what are some limitations of language vividness
- can undermine persuasion
- distraction
- msg gets lost in vividness
what is powerless language
things like “kinda”, “sort of”, “I suppose”
intensifiers that actually create uncertain appearance
define narrative and statistical evidence
- statistics: numerical information
- narrative: story or anecdote of a single individual’s experience
what is an elaboration continuum
amount of effort ppl r willing to take to process persuasive messages
what are some receiver factors
- sex differences
- involvement
what is the sex difference in receiver factors
there is no evidence saying men/women respond differently to persuasive msgs
explain involvement in receiver factors
-key construct in persuasion research
what are the three types of involvement in receiver factors
- value relevant
- outcome relevant
- impression relevant
what is value-relevant involvement
- reflect concern bout value that define one’s self-concept
- thought of as “ego - involvement” in SJT
- inhibits attitude change
what is outcome-relevant involvement
- reflect concern bout outcome related to persuasive msg
- in ELM, factor that motivates receivers to centrally process a msg
what is impression-relevant involvement
- occur when individual concern bout social consequence of expressing an attitude
- inhibits attitude change
define fear appeal
msg that outlines neg consequences of failing to comply w/ recommendation
what does fear create
drive/motivation
- defensively avoid (flight)
- engage in recommended response (flight)
In the Janis and Feshbach Gum Disease Study, what did they find about fear?
- high fear –>least amt of conformity w/ msg recommendations
- low fear –> most conformity w/ recommendations
explain fear control vs. danger control
fear control: focusing on controlling ones fear
danger control: focus on controlling the threat
what is the extended parallel process model (EPPM)
-explains responses to fear appeals
what are the components of EPPM
- threat: severity, susceptibility, some threat necessary to motivate msg processing
- efficacy: response efficacy, self efficacy, appraisal (evaluation of threat & efficacy)
- fear
what does perceived threat and efficacy determine
whether people engage in fear or danger control
if perceived threat is greater than perceived efficacy…
engage in fear control
if perceived threat is less than perceived efficacy…
engage in danger control
(we want danger control doing things to avert threat…EG. its a serious problem that I’m at risk for, but I can do something to effectively avert it)
describe danger control
accepting msg recommendations and making appropriate behavioral changes
describe fear control
-control fear, not danger, and reject the msg
EX. taking mind off it, distractions, avoid
what are some conclusions from the EPPM
- either fear control/danger control processes dominate (can’t do both)
- threat motivates action, efficacy determines nature of action
in EPPM, when threat is low
no response to message
in EPPM, when threat is high, and efficacy is high
people control the danger and protect themselves
in EPPM, when threat is high, and efficacy is low
people control their fear and ignore the message
what are the steps in using the EPPM to create/evaluate a fear appeal
1) audience must perceive sufficient level of severity & suceptibitiliy
2) audience perception of efficacy must exceed the amt of perceived threat (believe recommend response is effective/must believe can enact recommended response)
define guilt
-the dysphoric (bad) feeling associated w/ recognition that one has violated a personally relevant social/moral standard
(feel we r responsible for some wrongdoing)
what is some guild backgroun
- aroused when ppl bahvior incongruent w/ perception of appropriate conduct
- guilt arouse “me” reaction (caused harm to another person)
- guilt has action tendency (atone for mistake)
what are some receiver factors
- sex differences
- involvement
what is the sex difference in receiver factors
there is no evidence saying men/women respond differently to persuasive msgs
explain involvement in receiver factors
-key construct in persuasion research
what are the three types of involvement in receiver factors
- value relevant
- outcome relevant
- impression relevant
what is value-relevant involvement
- reflect concern bout value that define one’s self-concept
- thought of as “ego - involvement” in SJT
- inhibits attitude change
what is outcome-relevant involvement
- reflect concern bout outcome related to persuasive msg
- in ELM, factor that motivates receivers to centrally process a msg
what is impression-relevant involvement
- occur when individual concern bout social consequence of expressing an attitude
- inhibits attitude change
define fear appeal
msg that outlines neg consequences of failing to comply w/ recommendation
what does fear create
drive/motivation
- defensively avoid (flight)
- engage in recommended response (flight)
In the Janis and Feshbach Gum Disease Study, what did they find about fear?
- high fear –>least amt of conformity w/ msg recommendations
- low fear –> most conformity w/ recommendations
explain fear control vs. danger control
fear control: focusing on controlling ones fear
danger control: focus on controlling the threat
what is the extended parallel process model (EPPM)
-explains responses to fear appeals
what are the components of EPPM
- threat: severity, susceptibility, some threat necessary to motivate msg processing
- efficacy: response efficacy, self efficacy, appraisal (evaluation of threat & efficacy)
- fear
what does perceived threat and efficacy determine
whether people engage in fear or danger control
if perceived threat is greater than perceived efficacy…
engage in fear control
if perceived threat is less than perceived efficacy…
engage in danger control
describe danger control
accepting msg recommendations and making appropriate behavioral changes
describe fear control
-control fear, not danger, and reject the msg
EX. taking mind off it, distractions, avoid
what are some conclusions from the EPPM
- either fear control/danger control processes dominate (can’t do both)
- threat motivates action, efficacy determines nature of action
in EPPM, when threat is low
no response to message
in EPPM, when threat is high, and efficacy is high
people control the danger and protect themselves
in EPPM, when threat is high, and efficacy is low
people control their fear and ignore the message
what are the steps in using the EPPM to create/evaluate a fear appeal
1) audience must perceive sufficient level of severity & suceptibitiliy
2) audience perception of efficacy must exceed the amt of perceived threat (believe recommend response is effective/must believe can enact recommended response)
define guilt
-the dysphoric (bad) feeling associated w/ recognition that one has violated a personally relevant social/moral standard
(feel we r responsible for some wrongdoing)
what is some guilt background
- aroused when ppl bahvior incongruent w/ perception of appropriate conduct
- guilt arouse “me” reaction (caused harm to another person)
- guilt has action tendency (atone for mistake)
whats the difference in guilt vs. shame
-guilt occurs in response to external events
(happens between people rather than just inside them)
-shame results from internal events
what are the three broad function that guilt serves in social relationships?
- motivates relationship enhancing patterns
- redistributes emotional distress within the dyad
- interpersonal influence technique
what are some methods of eliciting guilt
- ROLE OBLIGATION (..that depends on how professional you are…)
- RELATIONSHIP OBLIGATION (if you were a real friend..)
- NATURE OF THINGS ( i thought you wanted to get better grades this semester)
- SACRIFICE (I’ll walk if you can’t give me a ride)
- DEBT (what about all the times I’ve changed my plans for you?)
What are some persuasive appeals in guilt
- negative state relief model
- people persuaded when: feel negative, no other way to reduce negative affect –>compliance
- an effective persuasive appeal must: arouse guilt by pointing out violation, show that retributions can be made
what are the three types of guilt
- reactive guilt
- anticipatory guilt
- existential guilt
what is reactive guilt
-response to an overt act of violating one’s internalized standards of acceptable behavior
what is anticipatory guilt
-experienced as one contemplates a potential violation of internal standards
what is existential guilt
a result of the awareness of a discrepancy between one’s well being and the well being of others.
