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Genetics > Test 1 Text Book Review Questions > Flashcards

Test 1 Text Book Review Questions Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Give at least three examples of the role of genetics in society today?

A

People’s genetic information is increasingly being used for a wide range of non-clinical purposes, such as solving crimes, determining paternity, and exploring one’s ancestry.

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2
Q

List the three traditional subdisciplines of genetic and summarize what each covers?

A
  • Transmission genetics: basic principles of heredity and how traits are passed from one generation to the next, focused on the individual organism
  • Molecular genetics: chemical nature of the gene itself, includes cellular processes of replication, transcription, and translation, focused on the gene
  • Population genetics: genetic composition of groups of individuals of the same species and how that composition changes over time and space, the study of evolution, focused on the group of genes found in a population
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3
Q

What are some characteristics of model genetics organisms that make them useful for genetics studies?

A
  • short generation time
  • large but manageable numbers of progeny
  • adaptability to lab environment
  • ability to be housed and propagated inexpensively
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4
Q

When and where did agriculture first arise?

A

approximately 10,000-12,000 years ago in Middle East,
capable of developing several hundred varieties of date palms differing in size, color, taste, and time of ripening

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5
Q

What is pangenesis

A

genetic information travels from different parts of the body to reproductive organs

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6
Q

What is the germ plasm theory?

A

all cells contain a complete set of genetic information

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7
Q

What is preformationism?

A

miniature organism resides in sex cells; thus all traits are inherited from one parent

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8
Q

What is the concept of inheritance of acquired traits?

A

Acquired traits become incorporated into hereditary information

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9
Q

What is blending inheritance?

A

genes blend and mix; we are a blend of our parents

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10
Q

Summarize the relations between genes, DNA, and chromosomes.

A

Gene is fundamental unit of heredity;
Chromosomes are long strands of condensed DNA and proteins.
A gene is a region of DNA that encodes for a specific trait.

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11
Q

Describe some of the ways in which your own genetic makeup affects you as a person. Be as specific as you can.

A

My genes give me my brown hair, green eyes, and also disorders like hypothyroidism.

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12
Q

For each of the following genetic topics, indicate whether it focuses on transmission genetics, molecular, or population genetics.
a. analysis of pedigrees to determine the probability of someone inheriting a trait
b. study of people on a small island to determine why a genetic form of asthma is prevalent on the island
c. effect on nonrandom mating on the distribution of genotypes among a group of animals.
d. Examination of the nucleotide sequences found at the ends of chromosomes
e. Mechanisms that ensure a high degree of accuracy in DNA replication

A

a. transmission genetics
b. population genetics
c. population genetics
d. molecular genetics
e. molecular genetics
f. transmission genetics

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13
Q

Compare and contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

A

eukaryotic:
- complex
- possess nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
prokaryotic:
- lack nuclear membrane
- don’t generally possess membrane-bound cell organelles

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14
Q

Compare and contrast genes and alleles.

A

gene: a basic unit of hereditary information, usually encoding a functional RNA or polypeptide.
Alleles: variant forms of a gene, arising through mutation.

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15
Q

Compare and contrast genotype and phenotype.

A

genotype: is the set of genes or alleles inherited by an organism from its parent(s).
Phenotype: physical trait; expression of genotype through interaction with environmental factors.

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16
Q

Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.

A

Both are nucleic acid polymers. RNA contains a ribose sugar, whereas DNA contains a deoxyribose sugar. RNA also contains uracil as on of the four bases, whereas DNA contains thymine. The other three bases are common to both DNA and RNA. Finally, DNA is usually double stranded, consisting of two complementary strands, whereas RNA is single stranded.

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17
Q

Compare and contrast DNA and chromosomes

A

Chromosomes are structures consisting of DNA and associated proteins. The DNA contains the genetic information.

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18
Q

What four general characteristics must the genetic material possess?

A

1) contain complex info
2) must replicate faithfully
3) capacity to mutate
4) encode phenotype

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19
Q

What is transformation? How did Avery and his colleagues demonstrate that the transforming principle is DNA?

A

Transformation occurs when a transforming material (DNA) genetically alters the bacterium that absorbs the transforming material.
experiment with DNAase, RNAase and the other one

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20
Q

What are the three parts of DNA nucleotide?

A

deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, group, nitrogenous base

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21
Q

How does an RNA nucleotide differ from a DNA nucleotide?

A
  • RNA nucleotides have a ribose sugar with an hydroxyl group linked to the 2′ carbon of the sugar molecule.
  • Ribonucleotides may contain the nitrogenous base uracil, but not thymine.
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22
Q

What are some of the important genetic implications of the DNA structure?

A

Gives insight into the three fundamental genetic processes. It suggests that genetic information is encoded in the nucleotide sequences. The complementary polynucleotide strands indicate how faithful repletion of the genetic material is possible. The arrangement of the nucleotides is such that they specify the primary structure or amino acid sequence of protein molecules.

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23
Q

What are the three major pathways of information flow within the cell?

A

replication, transcription, and translation (part of central dogma)

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24
Q

How does supercoiling arise? What is the difference between negative supercoiling and positive supercoiling?

A

Supercoiled DNA is overwound or underfund, causing it to twist on itself
- Positive supercoils occurs when DNA is overstated; the helix twists on itself
- Negative supercoiled DNA is underrated helix twists itself in opposite direction.

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25
Q

What functions does supercoiling serve for the cell?

A

compacts the DNA

26
Q

What are some differences between euchromatin and heterochromatin?

A

Heterochromatin is highly condensed, gene-poor, and transcriptionally silent, whereas euchromatin is less condensed, gene-rich, and more easily transcribed

27
Q

Describe the composition and structure of the nucleosome.

A

Each nucleosome is composed of a little less than two turns of DNA wrapped around a set of eight proteins called histones, which are known as a histone octamer. Each histone octamer is composed of two copies each of the histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.

28
Q

What are epigenetic changes, and how are they brought about?

A

the study of how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work. epigenetic changes are reversible and do not change your DNA sequence, but they can change how your body reads a DNA sequence.

29
Q

Describe the function and molecular structure of telomeres.

A

Telomeres are the ends of the linear chromosomes in eukaryotes. They cap and stabilize the ends of the chromosomes to prevent degradation by exonucleases or joining of the ends. Telomeres also enable replication of the ends of the chromosome by an enzyme called telomerase.

30
Q

Who took x-ray diffraction pictures used in determining the structure of DNA.

A

Wilkins and Franklin

31
Q

Who determined that DNA contains nitrogenous bases.

A

Kossel

32
Q

Who identified DNA as the genetic material in bacteriophages?

A

Hershey and Chase

33
Q

Who discovered regularity in the ratios of different bases in DNA.

A

Chargaff

34
Q

Who determined that DNA is responsible for transformation in bacteria.

A

Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty

35
Q

Who worked out the helical structure of DNA by building models.

A

Watson and Crick

36
Q

Who discovered that DNA is acidic and high in phosphorus?

A

Miescher

37
Q

Who demonstrated that heat-killed material from bacteria can genetically transform live bacteria?

A

griffith

38
Q

A student mixes some heat killed type IIS bacteria with live type IIR bacteria and injects the mixture into a mouse. The mouse dies. The student recovers some type IIS bacteria from the dead mouse, If this is the only experiment conducted but the student, has the student demonstrated that transformation has taken place? What other explanations might explain the presence of type IIS bacteria in the dead mouse?

A

No, the student has not demonstrated that transformation has taken place. A single mutation could convert the IIR strain into the virulent IIS strain. Thus, the student cannot determine whether the conversion from IIR to IIS is due to transformation or to a mutation.
Also, the student has not demonstrated that the heat was sufficient to kill all the IIS bacteria. A second useful control experiment would have been to inject the heat- killed IIS into mice and see if any of the IIS bacteria survived the heat treatment.

39
Q

If a double stranded DNA molecule is 15% thymine, what are the percentages of all the other bases?

A

A - 15%
C- 35%
G- 35%

40
Q

Compare and contract bacterial and eukaryotic chromosomes. How are they alike, and how do they differ?

A

Prokaryotic chromosomes:
- circular
- contain the entire genome
- smaller
- have a single origin of DNA
- replication condensed into nucleotides which have loops of DNA compacted into a dense body.
Eukaryotic chromosomes:
- linear
- only a part of the genome that is divided into multiple chromosomes,
- contains multiple origins of DNA replication,
- contain DNA packaged into nucleosomes which are further coiled and packaged into structures of successively higher order, condensation state of varies with the cell cycle.

41
Q

What is semiconservative replication?

A

he replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on complementary base pairing. DNA replication is a semi-conservative process, because when a new double-stranded DNA molecule is formed: One strand will be from the original template molecule.

42
Q

List the different proteins and enzymes taking part in bacterial replication .

A
  • Initiator Protein
  • DNA Helicase
  • SSBP
  • DNA primase:
  • DNA Pol III
  • DNA Pol 1
    DNA ligase
43
Q

What similarities and differences exist in the enzymatic activities of DNA pol I and III? What is the function of each DNA polymerase in bacterial cells?

A

Similarities = Both lay down nucleotide bases (dNTPs) and both are 5’–3’

Differences = Poly 1 removes primers. Poly 3 proofreads (3’-5’ exonuclease). Poly 3 is primary replication enzyme.

44
Q

Why is primase required for replication?

A

Primase synthesizes short RNA primers that provide a 3’-OH for DNA polymerase to begin replication

45
Q

Why is DNA gyrase necessary for replication?

A

DNA synthesis relies on a single-stranded template; thus, double-stranded DNA molecules must be unwound prior to replication. During DNA unwinding by DNA helicase, tension builds up ahead of the separation (supercoiling). DNA gyrase (also referred to as topoisomerase) reduces supercoiling (relaxes tension) which builds up during DNA unwinding, preventing DNA breakage.

46
Q

What three mechanisms ensure the accuracy of replication in bacteria?

A

(1) Highly accurate nucleotide selection by the DNA polymerases when pairing bases.
(2) The proofreading function of DNA polymerase, which removes incorrectly inserted bases.
(3) A mismatch repair apparatus that repairs mistakes after replication is complete.

47
Q

In what ways in eukaryotic replication similar to bacterial replication, and in what ways is it different?

A

Both eukaryotic and bacterial replication of DNA replication share some basic principles:
(1) Semi-conservative replication.
(2) Replication origins serve as starting points for replication.
(3) Short segments of RNA called primers provide a 3’-OH for DNA polymerases to begin synthesis of the new strands.
(4) Synthesis occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction.
(5) The template strand is read in a 3’ to 5’ direction.
(6) Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates are the substrates.
(7) Replication is continuous on the leading strand and discontinuous on the lagging strand.
Eukaryotic DNA replication differs from bacterial replication in that:
(1) It has multiple origins of replications per chromosome.
(2) It has several different DNA polymerases with different functions.
(3) Immediately following DNA replication, assembly of nucleosomes takes place.

48
Q

What is the end-replication problem? Why in the absence of telomerase, do the ends of linear chromosomes get progressively shorter each time the DNA is replicated?

A

In the absence of telomerase, DNA polymerase will be unable to add nucleotides to the end of the strand. after multiple round of replication without a functional telomerase the chromosome will become progressively shorter.

49
Q

What would be the effect on DNA replication of mutations that destroyed each of the following activities of DNA pol I?
a. 3’ to 5’ exonuclease activity
b. 5’ to 3’ exonuclease activity
c. 5’ to 3’ polymerase activity

A

a. Fidelity of the polymerase would decrease without this proofreading function.
b.RNA primers could not be removed from the DNA during replication.
c. There would be a loss of the ability to synthesize DNA in the gaps created by the removal of RNA primers.

50
Q

How would DNA replication be affected in a bacterial cell that is lacking DNA gyrase?

A

reduces the positive supercoiling or torsional strain that develops ahead of the replication fork due to the unwinding of the double helix.

51
Q

Arrange the following components of replication in the order in which they first act in the replication process; ligase, DNA pol I, helicase, gyrase, primate, ssbp, initiator proteins.

A

1) Initiator Protein
2) SSBP
3) Helicase
4) Gyrase
5) Primase
6) Pol III
7) Pol I
8) Ligase

52
Q

Who discovered that DNA consists of repeating nucleotides?

A

Levene

53
Q

Function of initiator protein (DnaA)

A

binds to oriC and neighboring sequence pops open at melts hydrogen bonds

54
Q

Function of DNA helicase

A

Unwinds DNA at replication fork by melting hydrogen bonds

55
Q

Function fo SSBP

A

Attach to single-stranded DNA and precent secondary structures from forming

56
Q

Function of Gyrase

A

moves ahead of the replication fork, making and resealing breaks in the double-helical DNA to release the torque that builds up as a result of unwinding at the replication

57
Q

Function of primase

A

synthesizes a short RNA primer to provide a 3’ OH group for the attachment of DNA nucleotides

58
Q

Function of DNA pol III

A

elongates a new nucleotide stand from the 3’

59
Q

Function of DNA pol I

A

removes RNA primer and replaces them with DNA

60
Q

Function of DNA ligase

A

Joins Okazaki fragment by sealing breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone with phosphodiester bonds of newly synthesized DNA

61
Q

Function of the beta clamp

A

finds primers to recruit DNA pol III

62
Q

What is the cell theory?

A

All life is composed of cells and cells arise only from cells

Genetics (14 decks)

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